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Deformation rate vector fields when (a) X(t) ≈ 1000 µm, (b) X(t) ≈ 2000 µm, and (c) X(t) ≈ 4000 µm. Engineered tissue experiences highly spatiotemporal deformation during freezing. The maximum local deformation rate is observed at the freezing interface. The deformation rate progressively decreases away from the interface in the unfrozen region. A slight to no deformation rate is observed in the frozen region.
