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Averaged deformation rates and dilatation profiles. (a) y-averaged x-deformation rate, (b) y-averaged y-deformation rate, and (c) y-averaged dilatation when X(t) ≈ 1000, 2000, and 4000 µm. One-dimensional freezing induces deformation of engineered tissue primarily in the x direction with an average magnitude ranging from 0 to 1.8 µm/s. Average deformation rates in the y direction are much smaller than those in the x direction.
