Table 1.

Signs of altered immune response in Alzheimer's disease patients and relevant references

Signs of altered immune response	References
Presence of HLA-DR or LFA-1 (leucocyte function-associated antigen) positive reactive microglia around senile plaques	[1,2,35,37,40]
Increased hippocampal gene expression of MHC II in AD compared to high-pathology controls	[95]
Elevated brain levels of IL-1β and S-100	[3]
Presence of activated elements of classical complement pathway (C1q, C3d, C4d) within dystrophic neurites, NFTs and/or Aβ plaques	[34,36,96]
Up-regulated mRNA levels of complement elements C1q and C9 in AD brain	[97]
Strong IL-6 immunoreactivity around plaques and large cortical neurons	[38]
Low levels of TNFa in brain areas with AD pathology	[39]
Increased levels of TNFa in sera of severe stage AD patients	[98]
Increased levels of intracellular neuronal IL10, IFNγ and IL12 in AD patients compared to age-matched controls	[99]
Correlations between Mini Mental State Examination scores and in vivo imaging marker [11C](R)PK11195-PET of activated microglia in AD patients	[42]

Aβ, amyloid beta; AD, Alzheimer's disease; IFN, interferon; NFT, neurofibrillary tangle.