Table 1.
Overview of the so far published experimental studies examining the threat information pathway to fear in children
| Study | N | Age range (years) | Stimulus | Information | Outcome | Effects |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Field et al. (2001) Exp 1 | 40 | 7–9 | Monster doll | Threat, Pos | Self-reported fear | Threat ↑, Pos ↓ |
| Field et al. (2001) Exp 2 | 45 | 7–9 | Monster doll | Threat, Pos | Self-reported fear | Threat ↑, Pos − |
| Field et al. (2003) | 135 | 10–13 | Social situations | Threat, Pos, Neu | Self-reported fear | Threat ↓, Pos ↑** |
| Field and Lawson (2003) | 59 | 6–9 | Novel animals | Threat, Pos, No | Self-reported fear | Threat ↑, Pos ↓, No − |
| Negative implicit attitude | Threat ↑/Pos ↓* | |||||
| Avoidance behavior | Threat ↑, Pos ↓, No − | |||||
| Field (2006b) Exp 2 | 60 | 6–9 | Novel animals | Threat, Pos, No | Attentional bias | Threat > Pos |
| Field (2006b) Exp 3 | 127 | 6–9 | Novel animals | Threat, Pos, No | Avoidance behavior | Threat > Pos, No |
| Field (2006c) | 50 | 7–9 | Novel animals | Threat, Pos, No | Self-reported fear | Threat ↑, Pos ↓, No − |
| Attentional bias | Threat > Pos | |||||
| Field and Schorah (2007) | 26 | 6–9 | Novel animals | Threat, Pos, No | Heart rate | Threat > Pos, No |
| Field and Storksen-Coulson (2007) | 51 | 6–8 | Novel animals | Threat, No | Self-reported fear | Threat ↑ > No ↑ |
| Field et al. (2007) Exp 1 | 41 | 6–10 | Novel animals | Threat, Pos, No | Self-reported fear | Threat ↑, Pos ↓, No − |
| Field et al. (2007) Exp 2 | 64 | 6–9 | Novel animals | Threat, Pos, No | Self-reported fear | Threat ↑, Pos ↓ > No ↓ |
| Field et al. (2008a) | 117 | 6–8/12–13 | Novel animals | Threat, Pos, No | Self-reported fear LT | Threat ↑, Pos ↓, No − |
| Negative implicit attitude LT | Threat ↑/Pos ↓* | |||||
| Avoidance behavior | Threat > Pos, No | |||||
| Field and Lawson (2008) | 120 | 7–9 | Novel animals | Threat, Pos, No | Self-reported fear | Threat ↑, Pos ↓, No − |
| Reasoning bias | Threat > No** | |||||
| Field and Price-Evans (2009) | 54 | 6–10 | Novel animals | Threat, Pos, No | Self-reported fear | Threat ↑, Pos ↓, No − |
| Heart rate | Threat > Pos, No | |||||
| Kelly et al. (2010) | 107 | 6–8 | Novel animals | Threat, No | Self-reported fear Avoidance behavior | Threat > No Threat > No |
| Lawson et al. (2007) Exp 1 | 118 | 6–8/12–13 | Social situations | Threat, Pos, No | Self-reported fear | Threat −, Pos −, No − |
| Lawson et al. (2007) Exp 2 | 80 | 13–13 | Social situations | Threat, Pos, No | Self-reported fear | Threat ↑, Pos −, No − |
| Negative implicit attitude | Threat ↑/Pos ↓* | |||||
| Muris et al. (2003) | 285 | 4–12 | Novel animal | Threat, Pos | Self-reported fear LT | Threat ↑, Pos ↓ |
| Muris et al. (2008) | 159 | 9–13 | Novel animals | Disg, Clean | Self-reported fear | Disg ↑, Clean ↓ |
| Muris et al. (2009a) Exp 1 | 151 | 9–14 | Novel animals | Disg, Clean | Self-reported fear/avoidance | Threat ↑ > Disg ↑ |
| Muris et al. (2009a) Exp 2 | 118 | 9–13 | Novel animal | Threat, Disg, Clean | Self-reported fear/avoidance | Threat ↑ > Disg ↑, Clean ↓ |
| Avoidance behavior | Disg > Clean | |||||
| Muris et al. (2009b) | 318 | 9–12 | Novel animal | Threat, Pos, Amb, No | Self-reported fear | Threat > Amb > No > Pos |
| Reasoning bias | Threat, Amb > No > Pos*** |
Note Exp = Experiment, Threat = Threatening information, Pos = Positive information, No = No information, Neu = Neutral information, Amb = Ambiguous information, Disg = Disgust-related information, Clean = Cleanliness-related information, LT = Long-term effects. ↑ Increase in fear on this outcome measure, ↓ Decrease in fear on this outcome measure, − No significant change in fear on this outcome measure. * The experimental tasks that were employed to test children’s negative implicit attitude do not allow differentiating between effects of threat and positive information. ** For this outcome measure multiple assessments were taken, and effects were not present for all assessments. *** General pattern as observed when combining three measures of reasoning bias