Table 1.

Biological activities of transmembrane TNF-α as a ligand

Target	Function	References
Tumour cells (various types)	Cytotoxicity	[32–35, 38, 39, 43]
HIV-infected lymphocyte	Cell death	[44]
Intracellular parasite-infected macrophage	Inhibit the growth of intracellular pathogens	[45–49]
Mycobacterium infection	T-cell and macrophage migration, granuloma formation	[52–55]
Monocyte	IL-10 production	[70]
B cell	Proliferation, Ig production	[58–64]
T cell	HLA-DR and CD25 expression, GM-CSF production	[19]
NK cell	Enhancement of cytotoxic activity	[65]
Endothelial cell	Cell death, induction of pro-coagulant agents, adhesion molecules and pro-inflammatory cytokines	[42, 19, 56, 57]
Adipose tissue	Inhibition of adipocyte differentiation, local insulin resistance	[66, 67]
Heart	Concentric cardiac hypertrophy	[68, 69]
Lung	Interstitial inflammation	[36, 37]
Liver	Hepatitis	[40, 41]