Speech Sound Map
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Left Posterior Inferior Frontal Gyrus/Ventral Premotor Cortex
|
(−56, 10, 2) |
|
Mapping hypothesized based on imaging studies (e.g., Ghosh et al., 2008; Tourville et al., 2008), apraxia of speech studies (e.g., Ballard et al., 2000; McNeil et al., 2007), and research on mirror neurons (e.g., Rizzolatti et al., 1996; Buccino et al., 2001). |
Cerebellar Modules
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Superior Medial Cerebellum
|
(−18, −59, −22) |
(16, −59, −23) |
Mapping hypothesized based on ataxic dysarthria studies (e.g., Ackermann et al., 1992) and Ghosh et al. (2008). |
|
Superior Lateral Cerebellum
|
(−36, −59, −27) |
(40, −60, −28) |
Mapping hypothesized based on a meta-analysis of pseudoword reading studies (Indefrey and Levelt, 2004) and imaging studies (e.g., Ghosh et al., 2008; Tourville et al., 2008). |
|
Deep Cerebellar Nuclei
|
(−10.3, −52.9, −28.5) |
(14.4, −52.9, −29.3) |
Mapping hypothesized to relay cerebellar output to the cerebral cortex during speech production. |
Auditory State Map
|
Heschl's Gyrus
|
(−37.4, −22.5, 11.8) |
(39.1, −20.9, 11.8) |
Mapping hypothesized based on imaging studies (Guenther et al., 2004; Ghosh et al., 2008) and supported by Rivier and Clarke (1997) and Morosan et al. (2001). |
|
Planum Temporale
|
(−57.2, −18.4, 6.9) |
(59.6, −15.1, 6.9) |
Auditory Target/Error Maps
|
Planum Temporale
|
(−39.1, −33.2, 14.3) |
(44, −30.7, 15.1) |
Mapping hypothesized based on Buchsbaum et al. (2001) and Hickok and Poeppel (2004) and supported by Tourville et al. (2008). |
|
Posterior Superior Temporal Gyrus
|
(−64.6, −33.2, 13.5) |
(69.5, −30.7, 5.2) |
Somatosensory State Map
|
Ventral Somatosensory Cortex
|
|
|
Mapping hypothesized based on imaging studies (e.g., Ghosh et al., 2008; Tourville etal., 2008). |
Tongue 1
|
|
(−60.2, −2.8, 27) |
(62.9, −1.5, 28.9) |
Mapping hypothesized based on Boling et al. (2002) and supported by somatosensory evoked potential study of humans (McCarthy et al., 1993). |
Tongue 2
|
|
(−60.2, −0.5, 23.3) |
(66.7, −1.9, 24.9) |
Tongue 3
|
|
(−60.2, 0.6, 20.8) |
(64.2, 0.1, 21.7) |
Upper Lip
|
|
(−53.9, −7.7, 47.2) |
(59.6, −10.2, 40.6) |
Mapping hypothesized based on McCarthy et al. (1993). |
Lower Lip
|
|
(−56.4, −5.3, 42.1) |
(59.6, −6.9, 38.2) |
Jaw
|
|
(−59.6, −5.3, 33.4) |
(62.1, −1.5, 34) |
Mapping hypothesized based on motor jaw representation. |
Larynx (Intrinsic)
|
|
(−53, −8, 42) |
(53, −14, 38) |
Mapping hypothesized based on motor larynx representation. |
Larynx (Extrinsic)
|
|
(−61.8, 1, 7.5) |
(65.4, 1.2, 12) |
Palate
|
|
(−58, −0.7, 14.3) |
(65.4, −0.4, 21.6) |
Mapping hypothesized based on McCarthy etal. (1993). |
Somatosensory Target/Error Maps
|
Anterior Supramarginal Gyrus
|
(−62.1, −28.4, 32.6) |
(66.1, −24.4, 35.2) |
Mapping hypothesized based on Baciu et al. (2000) and Hashimoto and Sakai (2003) and supported by Golfinopoulos et al. (in preparation). |
Feedback Control Map
|
Ventral Premotor Cortex
|
|
(60, 14, 34) |
Mapping hypothesized based on Tourville et al. (2008) and Golfinopoulos et al. (in preparation)
|
Initiation Map
|
Supplementary Motor Area
|
(0, 0, 68) |
(2, 4, 62) |
Mapping hypothesized based on imaging studies (e.g., Bohland and Guenther, 2006; Ghosh et al, 2008). |
|
Caudate
|
(−12, −2, 14) |
(14, −2, 14) |
Mapping hypothesized based on Van Buren (1963). |
|
Putamen
|
(−26, −2, 4) |
(30, −14, 4) |
Mapping hypothesized based on imaging studies (e.g., Bohland and Guenther, 2006; Ghosh et al., 2008; Tourville et al., 2008). |
|
Globus Pallidus
|
(−24, −2, −4) |
(24, 2, −2) |
Mapping hypothesized based on imaging studies (e.g., Bohland and Guenther, 2006; Ghosh et al., 2008; Tourville et al., 2008) |
|
Thalamus
|
(−10, −14, 8) |
(10, −14, 8) |
Mapping hypothesized based on electrical stimulation study Johnson and Ojemann (2000) and imaging studies (e.g., Bohland and Guenther, 2006; Ghosh et al., 2008; Tourville et al., 2008) |
Articulator Position and Velocity Maps
|
Ventral Primary Motor Cortex
|
|
|
Mapping hypothesized based on imaging studies (e.g., Bohland and Guenther, 2006; Ghosh et al., 2008) and meta-analysis of pseudoword reading studies (Indefrey and Levelt, 2004). |
Tongue 1
|
|
(−60.2, 2.1, 27.5) |
(62.9, 2.5, 28.9) |
Mapping hypothesized based on Motor Tongue Area of Fesl et al. (2003). |
Tongue 2
|
|
(−60.2, 3, 23.3) |
(66.7, 2.5, 24.9) |
Tongue 3
|
|
(−60.2, 4.4, 19.4) |
(64.2, 3, 22) |
Upper Lip
|
|
(−53.9, −3.6, 47.2) |
(59.6, −7.2, 42.5) |
Mapping hypothesized based on Penfield and Roberts (1959) and Lotze et al. (2000a, 2000b). |
Lower Lip
|
|
(−56.4, 0.5, 42.3) |
(59.6, −3.6, 40.6) |
Jaw
|
|
(−59.6, −1.3, 33.2) |
(62.1, 3.9, 34) |
Mapping hypothesized based on Penfield and Roberts (1959). |
Larynx (Intrinsic)
|
|
(−53, 0, 42) |
(53, 4, 42) |
Mapping hypothesized based on Brown et al. (2008) and supported by Penfield Rasmussen (1950) and Penfield and Roberts (1959). |
Larynx (Extrinsic)
|
|
(−58.1, 6, 6.4) |
(65.4, 5.2, 10.4) |
Respiration
|
|
(−17.4, −26.9, 73.4) |
(23.8, −28.5, 70.1) |
Mapping hypothesized based on Fink et al. (1996) and Olthoff et al. (2009). |