Table 5.
Difference in pulse pressure (95% CI) associated with all traffic indices for the complete study group and subgroups.a
| All cases |
Obesity |
Diabetes |
||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Traffic index | p-Value | Yes | p-Value | No | p-Value | Yes | p-Value | No | p-Value | |
| ≤ 100 m | 2.2 (0.13 to 4.3) | 0.038 | 3.8 (0.88 to 6.8) | 0.011 | 1.2 (−1.8 to 4.1) | 0.432 | 3.2 (−0.24 to 6.8) | 0.068 | 1.5 (−1.1 to 4.1) | 0.152 |
| ≤ 200 m | 0.6 (−1.2 to 2.3) | 0.524 | 1.6 (−0.8 to 3.9) | 0.198 | −0.19 (−2.7 to 2.3) | 0.881 | 1.2 (−0.89 to 4.9) | 0.176 | 0.46 (−2.6 to 1.7) | 0.681 |
| 3-Tiered gradient | ||||||||||
| ≤ 100 m | 2.0 (0.04 to 3.9) | 0.073 | 3.7 (0.68 to 6.8) | 0.017 | 0.8 (−2.3 to 3.9) | 0.605 | 3.4 (−0.23 to 7.0) | 0.066 | 1.0 (−1.7 to 3.7) | 0.468 |
| > 100 to ≤ 200 m | −0.9 (−3.1 to 0.9) | 0.422 | −0.4 (−3.3 to 2.5) | 0.789 | −1.4 (−4.7 to 1.8) | 0.402 | −0.56 (−3.1 to 5.2) | 0.762 | −2.1 (−4.8 to 0.74) | 0.149 |
| No. of roadways | ||||||||||
| 1 roadway | −0.045 (−1.8 to 1.8) | 0.961 | 0.9 (−1.5 to 3.4) | 0.465 | −0.88 (−3.5 to 1.7) | 0.507 | 0.9 (−2.1 to 3.9) | 0.504 | −0.71 (−3.0 to 1.5) | 0.516 |
| ≥ 2 roadways | 4.6 (0.81 to 8.4) | 0.018 | 6.5 (0.89 to 12.2) | 0.024 | 3.8 (−1.2 to 8.9) | 0.134 | 8.1 (2.2 to 14.1) | 0.007 | 1.7 (−3.3 to 6.7) | 0.497 |
| VMT/mi2 | ||||||||||
| Level 2 | 1.0 (−0.94 to 3.0) | 0.302 | 0.80 (−1.9 to 3.5) | 0.559 | 1.3 (−1.5 to 4.1) | 0.404 | 2.2 (−1.1 to 5.5) | 0.188 | 0.8 (−1.8 to 3.3) | 0.553 |
| Level 3 | 0.98 (−1.4 to 3.4) | 0.424 | 0.78 (−2.5 to 4.0) | 0.644 | 1.9 (−1.8 to 5.4) | 0.312 | 4.1 (−0.01 to 8.3) | 0.051 | −1.3 (−4.3 to 1.7) | 0.383 |
| Level 4 | 0.87 (−2.6 to 4.3) | 0.621 | −0.4 (−5.6 to 4.8) | 0.876 | 2.3 (−2.3 to 6.9) | 0.328 | 1.4 (−4.9 to 7.7) | 0.661 | 0.56 (−3.6 to 4.7) | 0.778 |
| Raster density | ||||||||||
| Level 2 | −0.16 (−2.1 to 1.7) | 0.871 | −0.39 (−2.2 to 2.9) | 0.764 | −0.49 (−3.3 to 2.3) | 0.730 | −0.26 (−2.9 to 3.4) | 0.875 | −0.41 (−2.8 to 1.9) | 0.739 |
| Level 3 | −0.28 (−2.4 to 2.9) | 0.836 | −1.0 (−2.8 to 4.8) | 0.600 | −0.69 (−4.4 to 2.0) | 0.713 | −0.06 (−4.5 to 4.4) | 0.980 | −0.74 (−2.6 to 4.1) | 0.665 |
| Level 4 | −1.1 (−6.4 to 4.2) | 0.682 | −2.0 (−8.8 to 4.7) | 0.556 | 0.9 (−7.6 to 9.5) | 0.824 | 0.97 (−9.7 to 7.8) | 0.827 | −0.23 (−6.9 to 6.4) | 0.947 |
Reference levels were > 100 m for ≤ 100 m; > 200 m for ≤ 200 m and the 3-tiered gradient; 0 (roadways) for number of roadways ≤ 200 m of a residence; and level 1 for VMT/mi2 and raster density.
a
All pulse pressure models were adjusted for age, sex, BMI, waist circumference, glucose level, HDL, LDL, smoking status, diabetes, prior heart attack, heart disease, statin use, hypertension medication, WBC count, income/poverty ratio, and education.