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Neurotransmitters Implicated in the Motivational Effects of Withdrawal from Drugs of Abuse
| ↓ Dopamine … “dysphoria” | ↑ Dynorphin … “dysphoria” |
| ↓ Serotonin … “dysphoria” | ↑ CRF … stress |
| ↓ GABA … anxiety, panic attacks | ↑ Norepinephrine … stress |
| ↓ Opioid peptide … “dysphoria” | ↑ Glutamate … hyperexcitability |
