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Neurotransmitters Implicated in the Motivational Effects of Withdrawal from Drugs of Abuse
| Neurotransmitter | Functional effect |
|---|---|
| ↓ Dopamine | “dysphoria” |
| ↓ Serotonin | “dysphoria” |
| ↓ γ-aminobutyric acid | anxiety, panic attacks |
| ↓ Neuropeptide Y | anti-stress |
| ↑ Dynorphin | “dysphoria” |
| ↑ Corticotropin-releasing factor | stress |
| ↑ Norepinephrine | stress |
