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. 2010 Mar 4;1(3):148–163. doi: 10.4161/gmic.1.3.11712

Figure 2.

Figure 2

Probiotics modulate key signaling pathways in intestinal epithelial cells. Various probiotics prevent NFκB activation by inhibiting IκBα phosphorylation, ubiquitination, proteasomal degradation, or translocation of NFκB into the nucleus (suppression is indicated by a block sign “??”). Probiotics can also enhance RelA export from the nucleus via PPARγ. Other probiotics increase NFκB activation through enhanced translocation into the nucleus (activation is indicated by an arrow sign “→”). Apoptosis of intestinal epithelial cells can be prevented by probiotic modulation of the PI3K/Akt pathway. Probiotic-induced changes in phosphorylation levels of p38, JNK, and ERK1/2 MAPKs can affect cytokine secretion and apoptosis. ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinases; IκBα, inhibitor of NFκB α; IKK, IκB kinase; IRAK, interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase; JNK, c-Jun N-terminal kinase; P, phosphorylation; PPARγ, peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-γ; RXR, retinoid X receptor; TLR, Toll-like receptor; Ub, ubiquitin.