Table 2.

Epidemiologic studies of water intake influencing energy intake

First author (year)	Funding (I,N,M)	Sample characteristics (N gender, age, BMI)	Study name location & time	Study design	Duration	Outcome	Related findings
Kant (2009)²⁶	N	12,283 M&F, >20y, mw 4112 M&F, >20y, mw	1999–2004 NHANES (US, nationally representative) 2005–2006 NHANES	Cross-sectional linear model estimating water intakes (plain, beverage, and total waters) as a function of energy intake and other dietary factors. Analysis was conducted separately for each dataset.	NA	Plain water intake was not significantly predicted by energy intake in either dataset.¹	Plain water drinking was inversely related to consuming other beverages (−14.5g beverage water/ 100 g plain water, P<0.0001). Other beverages were positively associated with energy intake (44.1 g beverage water / 100 kcal, P<0.0001).
Popkin (2005)²³	I	4755M&F, >18y, mw	1999–2001 NHANES	Cross-sectional; Cluster analysis evaluating food and energy intake patterns of water drinkers (87%) compared to those who did not drink water.	NA	Water consumers drank on average 1.5L of water and consumed 194 fewer kcal per day.²	Water drinkers had healthier eating patterns including fewer kcal per day from sodas (−137), fruit drinks (−15) and fast foods (−62).
Stookey (2007)²⁵	I	118F, 25–50y, 27–40 kg m⁻²	Stanford A to Z weight loss trials, California, ~2005–2006	Longitudinal; Fixed effects study comparing impact of various diet plans on weight loss and fat loss. Modeled changes in beverage intake and energy intake among baseline sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumers.	1 Year	Replacing all SSBs with water, predicted mean energy intakes were decreased by 200kcal/day over 12 months.³	Replacing SSBs with non- caloric beverages, decreases were smaller; Replacing SSBs with nutritious caloric beverages did not reduce energy intake
Wang (2009)²⁴	N	3098 kids, 2- 19y, mw	2003–04 NHANES	Cross-sectional; Fixed effects analysis of two 24-hr recalls estimating the impact on total energy intake (TEI) of replacing sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) with healthier alternatives.	NA	Replacing all SSBs with water could reduce kid’s TEI on average 235 kcal/day.⁴	Total Energy Intake increased >100 kcal per 8oz (237mL) serving of milk, juice and soda, but did not increase with water or diet beverages.

Abbreviations: I=Industry, N=Non-industry, M=mixed industry and non-industry. mw=mixed weight (normal, overweight and obese); NHANES: US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey;

Plain water category excluded unflavored carbonated water. Model controlled for sex, age, race-ethnicity, body mass index, poverty-income ratio, years of education, smoking status, day of diet recall, leisure-time physical activity, average daily physical activity, any self-reported chronic disease, and survey wave.

Water category included tap or plain spring water. Unflavored carbonated water not mentioned.

Model controlled for total beverage intake, non-caloric and nutritious caloric beverages, food composition and energy expenditure.

⁴

Model controlled for changes in other beverage consumption, day of the week, fast-food intake, and non-beverage intake. Using two time points, Individuals were their own controls.