Table 1.
Distribution (%) of offspring smoking outcomes by sample characteristics
| Never tried cigarette | Ever tried cigarette | Regular smoking | FTNDa | |
| Variable | (n = 628) | (n = 667) | (n = 310) | (n = 314) |
| Paternal conduct disorder | ||||
| No | 33.7 | 35.1 | 15.9 | 15.4 |
| Yes | 24.9 | 32.9 | 18.3 | 23.9 |
| Paternal ASPD | ||||
| No | 33.3 | 35.3 | 16.0 | 15.5 |
| Yes | 18.8 | 23.8 | 21.3 | 36.3 |
| Paternal depression | ||||
| No | 33.6 | 35.1 | 16.1 | 15.1 |
| Yes | 24.6 | 32.0 | 16.8 | 26.6 |
| Paternal anxiety | ||||
| No | 34.0 | 34.3 | 15.9 | 15.8 |
| Yes | 25.2 | 37.4 | 17.8 | 19.6 |
| Maternal alcohol dependence | ||||
| No | 33.2 | 35.6 | 15.7 | 15.7 |
| Yes | 28.3 | 28.8 | 20.3 | 22.6 |
| Maternal ≥2 conduct disorder symptoms | ||||
| No | 34.0 | 35.2 | 15.5 | 15.3 |
| Yes | 25.7 | 31.9 | 19.5 | 23.0 |
| Maternal ≥2 ASPD disorder symptoms | ||||
| No | 33.3 | 35.2 | 16.5 | 14.9 |
| Yes | 27.7 | 31.1 | 13.1 | 28.2 |
| Maternal depression | ||||
| No | 34.6 | 34.3 | 15.8 | 15.3 |
| Yes | 27.9 | 36.1 | 16.7 | 19.4 |
| Paternal ND risk groupb | ||||
| 1 (HG-HE) | 27.8 | 33.1 | 17.3 | 21.8 |
| 2 (HG-LE) | 32.5 | 29.3 | 18.5 | 19.8 |
| 3 (MG-LE) | 39.8 | 33.5 | 15.7 | 11.0 |
| 4 (LG-LE) | 39.0 | 39.5 | 13.7 | 7.8 |
| Maternal Heaviness of Smoking Index | ||||
| Nonsmoker | 36.7 | 35.1 | 14.4 | 13.9 |
| Low | 29.3 | 37.1 | 19.8 | 13.9 |
| High | 25.8 | 32.3 | 17.2 | 24.8 |
| Paternal DD and AD risk groupsc | ||||
| Grp. 1 father DD/AD | 26.8 | 31.9 | 19.3 | 22.0 |
| Grp. 2 MZ co-twin DD/AD | 26.7 | 29.3 | 20.0 | 24.0 |
| Grp. 3 DZ co-twin DD/AD | 39.5 | 24.5 | 21.0 | 14.8 |
| Grp. 4 father AD | 30.3 | 38.0 | 14.2 | 17.5 |
| Grp. 5 MZ co-twin AD | 34.1 | 36.5 | 15.9 | 13.5 |
| Grp. 6 DZ co-twin AD | 37.8 | 35.8 | 13.5 | 12.8 |
| Grp. 7 unaffected | 39.3 | 35.5 | 14.8 | 10.5 |
| Paternal race | ||||
| White | 31.4 | 35.1 | 16.7 | 16.9 |
| Other | 52.0 | 30.4 | 8.8 | 8.8 |
| Offspring gender | ||||
| Male | 31.0 | 35.5 | 14.3 | 19.2 |
| Female | 34.4 | 34.0 | 17.9 | 13.6 |
| Paternal education | ||||
| ≤High school | 32.6 | 35.8 | 15.3 | 16.3 |
| >High school | 32.7 | 34.1 | 16.8 | 16.5 |
| Maternal education | ||||
| ≤High school | 29.4 | 35.5 | 14.6 | 20.5 |
| >High school | 34.6 | 34.4 | 17.0 | 14.1 |
| Biological parents marital status | ||||
| Married | 36.3 | 35.3 | 15.8 | 12.6 |
| Div./sep./wid./never married | 23.1 | 32.9 | 17.3 | 26.7 |
| Offspring age | ||||
| ≥24 | 23.6 | 38.2 | 17.6 | 20.6 |
| 21-23 | 20.5 | 37.7 | 23.1 | 18.6 |
| 18-20 | 29.2 | 33.8 | 17.7 | 19.4 |
| 16-17 | 52.7 | 31.3 | 8.0 | 8.04 |
| 12-15 | 74.2 | 22.7 | 2.5 | 0.51 |
Notes: FTND = The Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence; ASPD = antisocial personality disorder; ND = nicotine dependence; HG = high genetic; HE = high environmental; LE = low environmental; MG = medium genetic; LG = low genetic; DD = drug dependence; AD = alcohol dependence; Grp. = group; MZ = monozygotic; DZ = dizygotic; div./sep./wid. = divorced/separated/widowed.
Variables included in model if they were significantly associated with the smoking outcome in univariate analyses.
Four-group design: Group 1—offspring at high genetic (HG) and high environmental (HE) risk because fathers are MZ and DZ twins with Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third Edition, Revised (DSM-III-R), ND; Group 2—offspring at high genetic (HG) and low environmental (LE) risk because fathers are unaffected MZ twins whose co-twin has DSM-III-R ND; Group 3—offspring at medium genetic (MG) and LE risk because fathers are unaffected DZ twins whose co-twin has DSM-III-R ND; Group 4—offspring at low genetic and LE because fathers are unaffected ND MZ and DZ control pairs.
Seven-group sampling design variable: seven-group design based on father and co-twins AD and DD status and zygosity. Group 1 consisted of offspring born to fathers with drug dependence (DD) with and without alcohol dependence (AD). Group 2 offspring were born to unaffected MZ twins whose co-twin had DD with and without AD. Group 3 offspring were born to unaffected DZ twin fathers whose co-twin had DD with and without AD. Group 4 offspring were born to fathers with AD. Group 5—offspring had unaffected MZ twin fathers whose co-twin had AD. Group 6 offspring had unaffected DZ twin fathers whose co-twin had AD, and Group 7 offspring were born to MZ and DZ twins without DD and AD.