Table 1.

The management of non-agricultural ecosystems by farmers, hunter–gatherers and foragers. Sources: Kent (1989), Rosman & Rubel (1989), Kelly (1995), Bird Rose (1996), Balée (1998), Fowler & Turner (1999), Kehoe (1999), Pretty (2002, 2007), Harris & Mohammed (2003), Anderson & Nuttall (2004), Berkes (1999, 2009), Brookfield & Padoch (2007), Stephenson & Möller (2009) and Heckenberger (2009).

practice	detail	agricultural equivalent	examples
harvesting and hunting	hunting of particular species or individuals, at particular times	crop harvesting	muttonbird (sooty shearwater) gathering by Maori
	sparing young animals and fish	livestock raising	aboriginal caretakers
	rotational hunting and no-take zones closed fishing areas and closed		beaver bosses of Cree, rested hunting and trapping areas
	season allowing portion of fish catch to escape		sparing lead caribou individuals (as have knowledge of migration routes)
	taboos and rituals for certain people and animals		Pacific island closed fishing areas and seasons
	nomination of stewards to regulate hunting
planting	enrichment planting of fruit and medicinal trees in forests and home gardens	planting of domesticated seeds	tree, palm and bamboo enrichment by Amazonian cultures aboriginal wild gardens
	scattering seeds and roots		distribution and reproduction of
	replacing portions of roots		mongongo nut trees by San
	replanting of propagules		transplanting willow for basketry by
	selectively tended wild gardens		Shoshone
	agroforestry on and off farms
raising animals	selective culling and sparing	raising domesticated	managing wild pigs in Papua New
	transplanting eggs and young	animals	Guinea
	feeding young animals
nutrient additions	human and animal wastes near settlements mulching and charcoal as soil amendments	fertilizer, compost, animal manure	pastoralist corrals in Sub-Saharan Africa leading to Acacia woodlands wild pig management in Papua New
	feed for fish and wild pigs		Guinea
pest management	protection by removal of weeds, pests or predators	pest management	management of oyster beds in UK
habitat amendment and creation	coppicing and thinning of trees to increase yields and biodiversity	habitat amendment for agriculture	swidden agriculturalistsfarmers creating ponds for fishing or
	creation of ponds and fleets		wildfowling in UK
	creation of maize and sorghum game cover		farmers maintaining woodland and game cover for shooting
	clearing of forest glades
	creation of rock cairns to attract lizards
	creation of hunting gardens
water management	diversion of streams to irrigate wild strands of grasses	irrigationdrainage	irrigation by Hohokam in USA
	channel diversion for fish trapping
	clearing of stream-beds for fish spawning
fire use	burning to increase grass yields to encourage game, reveal burrows and tracks	burning crop stubbles and strawclearing swiddens	firestick farming by Australian Aboriginescreation of parklands by Native
	broadcasting seeds of annuals and perennials after burning	burning heather moors	Americans (Yosemite and Vancouver Island)
			burning of prairies by Blackfoot to improve grasses for wild herds