Table 2.
Effects of Mass Media Reports of “Influenza” and “Influenza Vaccine Delay/Shortage” on Influenza Vaccination Timing among Medicare Elderly (Years 1999, 2000, 2001) Estimated by Generalized Gamma Model (Coefficient [SE])†
| 1999 Keyword: Influenza/Flu (Headline) | 2000 Keyword: Influenza/Flu (Headline) | 2000 Keyword: Influenza and Vaccine/Shot and Delay/Shortage (Headline) | 2001 Keyword: Influenza/Flu (Headline) | 2001 Keyword: Influenza and Vaccine/Shot and Delay/Shortage (Full Text) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| USA Todayठ| 0.997 | 0.995 | 0.965 | 0.970 | 0.981 |
| (5.63E−03) | (6.15E−03) | (1.17E−02)*** | (6.91E−03)*** | (5.13E−03)*** | |
| 4TVठ| 0.997 | 0.997 | 0.993 | 0.997 | 0.993 |
| (1.06E−03)*** | (6.70E−04)*** | (1.71E−03)*** | (1.27E−03)** | (1.83E−03)*** | |
| APঠ| 0.973 | 0.976 | 0.985 | 0.983 | 0.990 |
| (8.50E−03)*** | (7.91E−03)*** | (1.95E−02) | (1.05E−02) | (4.33E−03)** | |
| CDC press releasesঠ| 1.062 | 0.944 | N/A | 1.001 | 0.977 |
| (2.08E−02)*** | (1.68E−02)*** | (2.35E−02) | (1.07E−02)** | ||
| Vaccine supply (million)∥ | 0.948 | 0.963 | 0.962 | 0.944 | 0.931 |
| (1.04E−02)*** | (1.83E−02)* | (1.83E−02)** | (1.25E−02)*** | (1.20E−02)*** | |
| Influenza epidemic level (% positive)∥ | 1.045 | 1.018 | 1.019 | 1.032 | 1.032 |
| (4.33E−03)*** | (4.63E−03)*** | (4.69E−03)*** | (8.29E−03)*** | (8.00E−03)*** | |
| RSV epidemic level (% positive)†† | 1.009 | 1.005 | 1.005 | 1.015 | 1.012 |
| (2.22E−03)*** | (1.77E−03)*** | (1.76E−03)*** | (2.08E−03)*** | (2.09E−03)*** | |
| State-level weather temperature (°F)‡‡ | 0.998 | 0.997 | 0.997 | 1.000 | 1.001 |
| (1.63E−03) | (1.05E−03)** | (1.00E−03)*** | (1.52E−03) | (1.50E−03) | |
| Female | 0.957 | 0.977 | 0.977 | 0.949 | 0.952 |
| (1.47E−02)*** | (1.44E−02) | (1.42E−02) | (1.51E−02)*** | (1.40E−02)*** | |
| Age ≥75 | 0.975 | 0.967 | 0.968 | 0.986 | 0.986 |
| (1.28E−02)* | (1.42E−02)** | (1.40E−02)** | (1.57E−02) | (1.47E−02) | |
| Race: white | 0.886 | 0.885 | 0.886 | 0.870 | 0.876 |
| (2.12E−02)*** | (2.49E−02)*** | (2.45E−02)*** | (2.53E−02)*** | (2.36E−02)*** | |
| Education: 13 years or more | 0.993 | 0.989 | 0.989 | 0.984 | 0.984 |
| (1.77E−02) | (1.47E−02) | (1.45E−02) | (2.05E−02) | (1.91E−02) | |
| Income: U.S.$20,000 or more | 0.970 | 0.957 | 0.957 | 0.997 | 0.996 |
| (1.50E−02)* | (1.56E−02)*** | (1.54E−02)*** | (1.87E−02) | (1.77E−02) | |
| General health: fair or poor | 1.019 | 1.027 | 1.027 | 1.041 | 1.039 |
| (1.69E−02) | (2.00E−02) | (1.97E−02) | (1.58E−02)*** | (1.44E−02)*** | |
| Chronic disease: high-risk level | 0.948 | 0.929 | 0.930 | 0.912 | 0.921 |
| (1.22E−02)*** | (1.49E−02)*** | (1.47E−02)*** | (1.70E−02)*** | (1.57E−02)*** | |
| Medigap insurance | 0.876 | 0.903 | 0.905 | 0.898 | 0.903 |
| (2.04E−02)*** | (2.41E−02)*** | (2.37E−02)*** | (2.13E−02)*** | (2.04E−02)*** | |
| Medicaid enrollment | 0.994 | 1.003 | 1.003 | 1.022 | 1.022 |
| (3.17E−02) | (2.93E−02) | (2.90E−02) | (3.55E−02) | (3.27E−02) | |
| Household member: 2 or more | 0.986 | 0.959 | 0.960 | 0.965 | 0.969 |
| (1.37E−02) | (1.32E−02)*** | (1.31E−02)*** | (1.55E−02)** | (1.42E−02)** | |
| Residence in metropolitan area | 1.047 | 1.013 | 1.014 | 0.969 | 0.971 |
| (3.76E−02) | (3.08E−02) | (3.03E−02) | (3.23E−02) | (3.05E−02) | |
| Flu vaccination during prior season | 0.552 | 0.531 | 0.538 | 0.548 | 0.568 |
| (2.20E−02)*** | (2.64E−02)*** | (2.54E−02)*** | (1.67E−02)*** | (1.61E−02)*** | |
| Pneumonia shot during past 5 years | 0.911 | 0.905 | 0.906 | 0.825 | 0.840 |
| (1.64E−02)*** | (2.12E−02)*** | (2.06E−02)*** | (1.88E−02)*** | (1.76E−02)*** | |
| Current smoking | 1.032 | 0.996 | 0.996 | 1.051 | 1.043 |
| (2.22E−02) | (2.98E−02) | (2.94E−02) | (3.04E−02)* | (2.75E−02) | |
| Attitude: avoid going to a physician | 1.012 | 1.010 | 1.009 | 0.974 | 0.976 |
| (1.70E−02) | (1.48E−02) | (1.46E−02) | (1.72E−02) | (1.59E−02) | |
| Attitude: visit a physician as soon as feel bad | 1.008 | 1.014 | 1.013 | 0.988 | 0.989 |
| (1.46E−02) | (1.42E−02) | (1.39E−02) | (1.58E−02) | (1.49E−02) | |
| Usual source of care | 0.847 | 1.007 | 1.007 | 0.900 | 0.910 |
| (3.44E−02)*** | (4.06E−02) | (3.98E−02) | (3.39E−02)*** | (3.18E−02)*** |
Proportion of time spent unvaccinated if exposed to factor, versus if not exposed to the factor (see text).
Units for media reports (per week): (i) USA Today: a product of “the number of flu-related articles” and “the circulation number in a resident state [million] (normalized by the number of total population in the state),” distinguishing articles published in weekday and weekend versions; (ii) 4TV—sum of ABC, CBS, FOX, and NBC, each is a product of “the number of related programs” and “the household number tuned to a program in a resident state [million] (normalized by the number of total population in the state)”; (iii) AP: the number of articles including flu-related keywords; (iv) CDC press release: the number of releases including flu-related keywords.
Daily varying at the 50 state levels.
Daily varying at the national level.
Weekly varying at the nine census region level.
Weekly varying at the four region level defined by the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2000a, 2002).
Weekly varying at the 50 state levels.
p-value <0.1
p-value <0.05
p-value <0.01.
AP, Associated Press; N/A, not available; RSV, respiratory syncytial virus; 4TV, four television (ABC, CBS, FOX, and NBC) networks.