TABLE 2.
Studies in Effects of Alcohol Taxes and Prices on Health and Social Indicators
| Outcome Measure | r (95% CI) | Z | P | |
| Alcohol-related morbidity and mortality | ||||
| Cook and Tauchen 198217 | Cirrhosis death rate | −0.080 (−0.169, 0.009) | −1.761 | .078 |
| Heien and Pompelli 198723 | Cirrhosis death rate | −0.003 (−0.101, 0.094) | −0.070 | .944 |
| Herttua et al. 200824 | Alcohol-related acute and chronic deaths | −0.068 (−0.107, −0.028) | −3.357 | .001 |
| Koski et al. 200727 | No. of alcohol-related injury deaths | −0.086 (−0.155, −0.016) | −2.405 | .016 |
| Nelson and Young 200139 | Cirrhosis death rate | −0.183 (−0.287, −0.075) | −3.313 | .001 |
| Rush et al. 198645 | Cirrhosis death rate (Michigan) | −0.610 (−0.801, −0.307) | −3.545 | <.001 |
| Rush et al. 198645 | Cirrhosis death rate (Ontario) | −0.950 (−0.977, −0.894) | −9.159 | <.001 |
| Schweitzer et al. 198350 | Alcoholism morbidity and mortality | −0.133 (−0.446, 0.210) | −0.754 | .451 |
| Skog and Melberg 200652 | Delirium tremens death rate | −0.931 (−0.972, −0.835) | −7.072 | <.001 |
| Sloan et al. 199453 | Primary cause death rate | −0.539 (−0.742, −0.246) | −3.358 | .001 |
| Smart and Mann 199854 | Cirrhosis death rate | −0.467 (−0.760, −0.016) | −2.025 | .043 |
| Wagenaar et al. 200955 | Alcohol-related mortality (1983 tax change) | −0.240 (−0.404, −0.060) | −2.598 | .009 |
| Wagenaar et al. 200955 | Alcohol-related mortality (2002 tax change) | −0.208 (−0.376, −0.027) | −2.243 | .025 |
| Total | −0.347 (−0.457, −0.228) | −5.430 | <.001 | |
| Other morbidity and mortality | ||||
| Cook et al. 200516 | All-cause mortality | −0.047 (−0.095, 0.002) | −1.889 | .059 |
| Ohsfeldt and Morrisey199740 | Industrial injury | −0.128 (−0.223, −0.031) | −2.578 | .01 |
| Total | −0.076 (−0.152, 0.001) | −1.942 | .052 | |
| Violence | ||||
| Grossman and Markowitz 199921 | Sexual assault | −0.013 (−0.019, −0.006) | −3.730 | <.001 |
| Herttua et al. 200825 | Assault, rape, domestic arrests | −0.083 (−0.189, 0.024) | −1.520 | .128 |
| Markowitz and Grossman 199833 | Child abuse | −0.086 (−0.158, −0.012) | −2.294 | .022 |
| Markowitz and Grossman 200034 | Child abuse (adult female) | −0.067 (−0.122, −0.011) | −2.348 | .019 |
| Markowitz and Grossman 200034 | Child abuse (adult male) | −0.047 (−0.122, 0.028) | −1.227 | .22 |
| Markowitz 200028 | Spouse abuse | −0.026 (−0.059, 0.007) | −1.540 | .123 |
| Markowitz 200029 | Probability of victimization | −0.023 (−0.033, −0.012) | −4.234 | <.001 |
| Markowitz 200030 | Fights | −0.012 (−0.023, −0.002) | −2.270 | .023 |
| Markowitz 200531 | Alcohol-related assault | −0.002 (−0.005, 0.001) | −1.027 | .304 |
| Matthews et al. 200637 | Violence injury rate | −0.175 (−0.252, −0.097) | −4.329 | <.001 |
| Total | −0.022 (−0.034, −0.010) | −3.579 | <.001 | |
| Suicide | ||||
| Birckmayer and Hemenway 199912 | Suicide (aged 15–17 y) | 0.032 (−0.030, 0.093) | 0.999 | .318 |
| Birckmayer and Hemenway 199912 | Suicide (aged 18–20 y) | 0.000 (−0.062, 0.062) | 0.007 | .994 |
| Birckmayer and Hemenway 199912 | Suicide (aged 21–23 y) | 0.010 (−0.051, 0.072) | 0.333 | .739 |
| Markowitz et al. 200332 | Suicide (females aged 10–14 y) | −0.007 (−0.063, 0.049) | −0.260 | .795 |
| Markowitz et al. 200332 | Suicide (males aged 10–14 y) | −0.097 (−0.152, −0.041) | −3.393 | .001 |
| Markowitz et al. 200332 | Suicide (females aged 15–19 y) | −0.035 (−0.091, 0.021) | −1.219 | .223 |
| Markowitz et al. 200332 | Suicide (males aged 15–19 y) | −0.168 (−0.222, −0.113) | −5.929 | <.001 |
| Markowitz et al. 200332 | Suicide (females aged 20–24 y) | −0.049 (−0.104, 0.007) | −1.699 | .089 |
| Markowitz et al. 200332 | Suicide (males aged 20–24 y) | −0.170 (−0.224, −0.115) | −6.008 | <.001 |
| Sloan et al. 199453 | Suicide | −0.339 (−0.607, −0.001) | −1.964 | .05 |
| Yamasaki et al. 200558 | Suicide | 0.570 (0.264, 0.772) | 3.367 | .001 |
| Total | −0.048 (−0.102, 0.007) | −1.726 | .084 | |
| Traffic | ||||
| Adrian et al. 200111 | Alcohol-related driver motor vehicle accident; fatality rate | −0.650 (−0.853, −0.278) | −3.102 | .002 |
| Chaloupka et al. 199314 | Crash fatality rate (adults) | −0.195 (−0.296, −0.090) | −3.602 | <.001 |
| Chaloupka et al. 199314 | Crash fatality rate (youths) | −0.322 (−0.415, −0.223) | −6.093 | <.001 |
| Chaloupka and Laixuthai 199713 | Driver motor vehicle accident; fatality rate; probability of motor vehicle accident |
0.125 (−0.181, −0.069) | −4.326 | <.001 |
| Dee 199919 | Driver and total motor vehicle fatality rate | −0.102 (−0.172, −0.032) | −2.836 | .005 |
| Evans et al. 199120 | Alcohol-related and total motor vehicle fatality rate | −0.127 (−0.205, −0.048) | −3.122 | .002 |
| Mast et al. 199936 | Driver; total motor vehicle fatality rate | −0.009 (−0.104, 0.085) | −0.194 | .846 |
| Mullahy and Sindelar 199438 | Probability of drunk driving (adult non-White females) | −0.026 (−0.048, −0.004) | −2.287 | .022 |
| Mullahy and Sindelar 199438 | Probability of drunk driving (adult non-White males) | −0.027 (−0.051, −0.004) | −2.258 | .024 |
| Mullahy and Sindelar 199438 | Probability of drunk driving (adult White females) | −0.008 (−0.030, 0.014) | −0.731 | .465 |
| Mullahy and Sindelar 199438 | Probability of drunk driving (adult White males) | −0.013 (−0.037, 0.011) | −1.084 | .278 |
| Nelson and Young 200139 | Total motor vehicle fatality rate | −0.066 (−0.174, 0.043) | −1.182 | .237 |
| Ponicki et al. 200742 | Total motor vehicle fatality rate | −0.065 (−0.119, −0.011) | −2.351 | .019 |
| Ruhm 199543 | Total motor vehicle fatality rate | −0.205 (−0.278, −0.131) | −5.307 | <.001 |
| Ruhm 199644 | Total miles motor vehicle fatality rate | −0.132 (−0.235, −0.025) | −2.415 | .016 |
| Ruhm 199644 | Total motor vehicle fatality rate | −0.161 (−0.263, −0.054) | −2.955 | .003 |
| Saffer and Grossman 198748 | Total motor vehicle fatality rate (aged 21–24 y) | −0.236 (−0.335, −0.133) | −4.399 | <.001 |
| Saffer and Grossman 198748 | Total motor vehicle fatality rate (aged 15–17 y) | −0.146 (−0.249, −0.039) | −2.677 | .007 |
| Saffer and Grossman 198748 | Total motor vehicle fatality rate (aged 18–20 y) | −0.250 (−0.347, −0.146) | −4.651 | <.001 |
| Saffer and Grossman 198749 | Total motor vehicle fatality rate (aged 21–24 y) | −0.169 (−0.271, −0.063) | −3.110 | .002 |
| Saffer and Grossman 198749 | Total motor vehicle fatality rate (aged 15–17 y) | −0.183 (−0.284, −0.077) | −3.376 | .001 |
| Saffer and Grossman 198749 | Total motor vehicle fatality rate (aged 18–20 y) | −0.299 (−0.393, −0.198) | −5.626 | <.001 |
| Saffer and Chaloupka 198947 | Night driver motor vehicle fatality rate (adults) | −0.195 (−0.304, −0.082) | −3.342 | .001 |
| Saffer and Chaloupka 198947 | Total motor vehicle fatality rate (adults) | −0.215 (−0.322, −0.101) | −3.678 | <.001 |
| Saffer 199746 | Night driver motor vehicle fatality rate (aged 15–24 y) | −0.050 (−0.107, 0.006) | −1.748 | .080 |
| Saffer 199746 | Total motor vehicle fatality rate (aged 15–24 y) | −0.016 (−0.073, 0.040) | −0.560 | .575 |
| Sloan et al. 199453 | Total motor vehicle fatality rate | −0.436 (−0.675, −0.114) | −2.600 | .009 |
| Smart and Mann 199854 | Alcohol-related driver; motor vehicle fatality rate | −0.373 (−0.707, 0.098) | −1.568 | .117 |
| Whetten-Goldstein et al. 200056 | Alcohol-related driver; total; total night motor vehicle fatality rate | −0.011 (−0.091, 0.069) | −0.267 | .790 |
| Wilkinson 198757 | Total motor vehicle fatality rate | −0.082 (−0.212, 0.050) | −1.216 | .224 |
| Young and Likens 200060 | Alcohol-related driver; total motor vehicle fatality rate (aged ≥ 20 y) |
−0.023 (−0.121, 0.075) | −0.462 | .644 |
| Young and Likens 200060 | Alcohol-related driver; total motor vehicle fatality rate (aged 18–20 y) |
−0.014 (−0.112, 0.085) | −0.268 | .788 |
| Young and Bielinska-Kwapisz 200659 | Total motor vehicle fatality rate (adults) | −0.097 (−0.162, −0.031) | −2.860 | .004 |
| Young and Bielinska-Kwapisz 200659 | Total motor vehicle fatality rate (youths) | −0.065 (−0.131, 0.001) | −1.930 | .054 |
| Total | −0.112 (−0.139, −0.085) | −8.069 | <.001 | |
| STDs and risky sexual behavior | ||||
| Chesson et al. 200015 | STD rate (females aged ≥ 24 y) | −0.102 (−0.180, −0.022) | −2.492 | .013 |
| Chesson et al. 200015 | STD rate (females aged 20–24 y) | −0.061 (−0.131, 0.010) | −1.686 | .092 |
| Chesson et al. 200015 | STD rate (males aged ≥ 24 y) | −0.123 (−0.201, −0.043) | −3.024 | .002 |
| Chesson et al. 200015 | STD rate (males age 20–24 y) | −0.101 (−0.171, −0.030) | −2.798 | .005 |
| Chesson et al. 200015 | STD rate (females age 15–19 y) | −0.032 (−0.103, 0.039) | −0.882 | .378 |
| Chesson et al. 200015 | STD rate (males aged 15–19 y) | −0.133 (−0.202, −0.062) | −3.687 | <.001 |
| Grossman and Markowitz 200522 | Birth control and condom use (females aged 14–18 y) | −0.014 (−0.032, 0.005) | −1.450 | .147 |
| Grossman and Markowitz 200522 | Birth control and condom use (males aged 14–18y) | −0.022 (−0.041, −0.003) | −2.306 | .021 |
| Markowitz et al. 200535 | Gonorrhea rate (males aged 15–19 y) | −0.061 (−0.121, 0.000) | −1.960 | .05 |
| Markowitz et al. 200535 | Gonorrhea rate (males aged 20–24 y) | −0.061 (−0.121, 0.000) | −1.960 | .05 |
| Markowitz et al. 200535 | AIDS rate | −0.023 (−0.046, 0.000) | −1.960 | .05 |
| Sen 200351 | Abortion rate | −0.176 (−0.306,−0.039) | −2.513 | .012 |
| Total | −0.055 (−0.078, −0.033) | −4.845 | <.001 | |
| Other drug use | ||||
| Jimenez and Labeaga 199426 | Tobacco consumption | −0.022 (−0.048, 0.004) | −1.628 | .104 |
| Pacula 199841 | Marijuana use | −0.023 (−0.061, 0.015) | −1.168 | .243 |
| Total | −0.022 (−0.043, 0.000) | −2.003 | .045 | |
| Crime/misbehavior | ||||
| Cuellar et al. 200418 | Probability of detention | −0.033 (−0.058, −0.008) | −2.576 | .01 |
| Grossman and Markowitz 199921 | Alcohol-related property damage; arguments; police trouble | −0.015 (−0.021, −0.009) | −5.100 | <.001 |
| Herttua et al. 200825 | Police detainments; multiple crimes/misbehavior | −0.090 (−0.196, 0.017) | −1.650 | .099 |
| Markowitz 200029 | Probability of being robbery victim | −0.015 (−0.023, −0.006) | −3.320 | .001 |
| Markowitz 200531 | Robberies | −0.004 (−0.007, −0.001) | −2.683 | .007 |
| Total | −0.014 (−0.023,− 0.005) | −2.943 | .003 | |
| Total effects (all outcomes combined) | −0.071 (−0.082, −0.060) | −12.491 | <.001 | |
Note. CI = confidence interval; STD = sexually transmitted disease. Duplicate citations reflect results from multiple independent samples reported in the same article.