Table 2.

Measurements that assess stigma change.

Measurement Domains	Conceptual Significance	Benefits	Costs
1. Behavior	Discriminatory:    Coercion    Segregation    Benevolence Affirming:    Support    Opportunity    Allocation    Service participation	- Most conceptually compelling domain - High on priority lists - High face validity	- Can be resource heavy: a research assistant independently documents a research subject‘s behavior. - Sometimes requires data gathering outside of setting. - Can be assessed by self report which increases social desirability effects.
2. Penetration	Recollection of medium and Message	- Potentially broadest impact	- Expensive - Challenges psychological models of data gathering - Diminished impact on behaviors
3. Attitudes and Emotions	Attitudes and stereotypes Emotions Behavior intentions	- Easy to self-administer - Good content and face validity - Good reliability and construct validities - Easy to develop and disseminate	- Susceptible to social desirability - Unclear connection with behavior - Less social validity
4. Knowledge and mental health literacy	Knowledge about disease/disability Knowledge about the treatment Error choice as knowledge measure directly representing stigma	- Easy to develop this kind of measure. - Directly relates to impact of education programs. - May guide participants seek help in the future. -Less susceptible to social desirability. - Easy to administer	- Mixed information on education effects. - No direct impact per se on stigmatizing attitudes and behaviors
5. Physiological and information processes	Proxy for arousal and emotion Consciousness and awareness Implicit and explicit information processing	- Less susceptible to social desirability - Triangulates self-report and knowledge data	- Need special equipment and skills to administer - Cumbersome for many anti-stigma evaluations - Social and construct validity not clear