TABLE 1.
Publications analyzed for trends in 24-h urinary sodium excretion in the United States, 1957–20031
| Reference (study year) | Trial name | Study type | Location (US state postal abbreviation) | Participants | Age | Women | Black or African American | Systolic and diastolic blood pressure | Urine measurements | Urine sodium |
| n | y | % | % | mm Hg | n | mmol or mEq/24 h | ||||
| Nishizaka et al (23) (2000–2004)23 | NA | PC | AL | 265 | 56 ± 124 | 56 | 43 | Blacks: 160 ± 27 and 91 ± 18; whites: 160 ± 27and 87 ± 15 | 1 | Blacks: 172 ± 85; whites: 194 ± 74 |
| Nishizaka et al (24) (2003)35 | NA | PC | AL | 76 | 55 ± 12 | 59 | 59 | 163 ± 18 and 91 ± 14 | 1 | 189 ± 75 |
| Carbone et al (25) (2002)6 | NA | SV | TN | 89 | 647 | 100 | 44 | NR | 1 | 143 ± 64 |
| Calhoun et al (26) (2001–2002)3 | NA | PC | AL | 88 | 57 ± 12 | 62 | 49 | 159 ± 24 and 90 ± 16 | 1 | 169 ± 71 |
| Chapman et al (27) (2001)358 | NA | NRT | GA, MN | 505 | 487 | 52 | 44 | Men: 144 ± 13 and 97 ± 5; women: 149 ± 13 and 96 ± 5; whites: 142 ± 12 and 95 ± 5; blacks: 153 ± 14 and 97 ± 5 | 1 | Men: 182 ± 75; women: 146 ± 57; whites: 161 ± 66; blacks: 167 ± 62 |
| Taylor and Curhan (28) (1994–1999; 2001)9 | Health Professionals Follow-Up Study | PC | National | 1003 | 637 | 0 | 0 | NR | 3 | 176 |
| Taylor and Curhan (28) (1994–1999; 2001)9 | NHS | PC | National | 1286 | 657 | 100 | 0 | NR | 3 | 142 |
| Taylor and Curhan (28) (1994–1999; 2001)9 | NHS II | PC | National | 984 | 487 | 100 | 0 | NR | 3 | 152 |
| Powell et al (29) (2000) | NA | SV | National | 5942 | 43–4810 | 29 | NR | NR | 1 | Men: 180; women: 139 |
| Sacks et al (30) (1997–1999)311 | DASH-S | RCT | MA, NC, OR, MD, LA | 412 | 487 | 56 | 56 | Control; 135 ± 10 and 86 ± 4; DASH-S: 134 ± 10 and 86 ± 5 | 1 | 155 ± 75 |
| Zhou et al (31) (1997–1999) | INTERMAP | SV | IL, MS, HI, MN, TX, PA, MD | 2195 | 497 | 50 | NR | NR | NR | Men: 161 ± 51; women: 127 ± 40 |
| Ripley et al (32) (1998)358 | NA | NRT | VA | 18 | 447 | 78 | 50 | Baseline, supine: black, 150 ± 12 and 88 ± 5; whites, 144 ± 8 and 86 ± 9 | 1 | Blacks: 117 ± 51; whites: 140 ± 50 |
| McCarron et al (33) (1996)358 | NA | RCT | OR, IN, MI, SC, PA, AL | 99 | 52 ± 10 | 42 | 24 | 134 ± 11 and 86 ± 6 | 1 | 141 ± 62 |
| Appel et al (34) (1994–1996)311 | Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension | RCT | MA, NC, OR, MD, LA | 459 | 447 | 49 | 60 | Ambulatory: 132 ± 10 and 84 ± 4 | 1 | 136 ± 54 |
| Dawson-Hughes et al (35) (1995)5 | Sites Testing Osteoporosis Prevention/Intervention Trial | SV | NE, CT, MA | 914 | 717 | 73 | NR | NR | 1 | Men: 156 ± 58; women: 118 ± 44 |
| Appel et al (36) (1992–1994)3 | Trial of Nonpharmacologic Interventions in the Elderly | RCT | NJ, MD, NC | 639 | 66 ± 5 | 47 | 23 | 127 ± 9 and 71 ± 7 | 2 | Men: 161 ± 54; women: 126 ± 45 |
| Kumanyika et al (37) (1990–1992)12 | Trials of Hypertension Prevention, Phase II | RCT | MD, CA, MS, TN, NJ, OR, PA, MO, AL | 1138 | 447 | 34 | 17 | Men: 127 ± 6 and 86 ± 2; women: 128 ± 7 and 86 ± 2; whites: 127 ± 6 and 86 ± 2; blacks: 128 ± 7 and 86 ± 2 | 1 | Men: 203 ± 84; women: 155 ± 63; whites; 192 ± 73; blacks: 166 ± 132 |
| Smith et al (38) (1991)35813 | Piedmont Health Survey of the Elderly | RCT | NC | 21 | 66 ± 6 | 43 | 29 | 150 ± 5 and 86 ± 3 | 1–3 | 192 ± 50 |
| Davis et al (39) (1991)58 | Trial of Antihypertensive Interventions and Management | RCT | NY, AL, MS | 785 | 497 | 44 | NR | 145 and 94 | NR | 134 |
| Loria et al (40) (1990)14 | CARDIA | PC | AL, IL, MN, CA | 906 | 307 | 57 | 54 | NR | 3 | Men: 195; women: 156; blacks: 170; whites: 176 |
| Kumanyika et al (41), Trials of Hypertension Prevention Collaborative Research Group (42), and Whelton et al (43) (1987–1990)15 | Trials of Hypertension Prevention, Phase I | RCT | MD, AL, CA, MA, MS, TN, NJ, PA, OR, MO | 2182 | 437 | 30 | 15 | 125 and 84 | 2 | Men: 170 ± 68; women: 131 ± 54 |
| Alderman et al (44) (1981–1990)3816 | NA | PC | NY | 2937 | 537 | 35 | NR | Men: 150 ± 18 and 98 ± 9; women: 150 ± 18 and 94 ± 10 | 1 | Men: 12617; women: 9717 |
| Krishna et al (45) (1989)68 | NA | RCT | PA | 10 | 307 | 0 | 0 | 120 ± 2 and 76 ± 2 | 1 | 163 ± 47 |
| Weinberger et al (46) (1988)3 | NA | NRT | IN | 114 | 517 | 30 | 13 | NR | 3 | 170 ± 66 |
| Schmieder et al (47) (1988)35 | NA | SV | LA | 37 | NR | NR | NR | NR | 1 | 136 ± 69 |
| INTERSALT Cooperative Research Group (48, 49) (1986)18 | INTERSALT | SV | IL, MS, HI | 1150 | 20–59 | NR | NR | 118 ± 13 and 74 ± 9 | 1 | 158 ± 61 |
| Veterans Administration Cooperative Study Group on Antihypertensive Agents (50) (1986)358 | Veterans Administration Cooperative Study | RCT | MS, FL, TN, AL, DC | 623 | 497 | 0 | 65 | Whites: 145 ± 17 and 100 ± 6; blacks: 147 ± 17 and 101 ± 7 | 1 | Whites: 184 ± 108; blacks: 176 ± 117 |
| Langford et al (51) (1985)3 | Hypertension Detection and Follow-up Program | RCT | NY, AL, MS | 425 | 577 | NR | NR | NR | 1 | 146 ± 67 |
| Kaplan et al (52) (1985)19 | NA | RCT | TX | 16 | 497 | 62 | 81 | 131 ± 3 and 96 ± 1 | 1 | 166 ± 19 |
| Sullivan et al (53) (1980)68 | NA | NRT | TN | 27 | 297 | 30 | 15 | 111 and 82 | 1 | 167 ± 24 |
| Pietinen et al (54) (1979)68 | NA | SV | DC | 50 | 267 | 38 | 46 | 119 ± 10 and 77 ± 8 | 3 | 153 ± 59 |
| Schachter et al (55) (1979)5 | NA | SV | PA | 9 | NR | 78 | NR | NR | 3 | 117 |
| Connor et al (56) (1978–1979)20 | NA | NRT | OR | 352 | 367 | 52 | NR | Men: 116 ± 10 and 75 ± 8; women: 109 ± 14 and 70 ± 9 | 1 | Men: 168 ± 67; women: 127 ± 52 |
| Luft et al (57) (1974–1978)21 | NA | NRT | IN | 345 | 307 | NR | NR | NR | 1 | Whites: 153 ± 66; blacks: 136 ± 61 |
| Kilcoyne et al (58) (1974)3522 | NA | NRT | NY | 146 | 487 | 68 | 100 | 174 ± 29 and 111 ± 13 | 1 | 128 ± 50 |
| Gros et al (59) (1971)36 | NA | NRT | MI | 10 | NR | NR | NR | NR | NR | 191 |
| Veverbrants and Arky (60) (1968)523 | NA | NRT | MA | 5 | NR | NR | NR | NR | 3 | 73 ± 8 |
| Dahl (61) (1957)324 | NA | SV | NY | 9 | 42 ± 11 | 0 | NR | NR | 6–38 | 169 ± 34 |
NA, not applicable; PC, prospective cohort; SV, survey; NR, not reported; NRT, nonrandomized trial; NHS, Nurses' Health Study; DASH-S, Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension–Sodium; RCT, randomized controlled trial; INTERMAP, International Collaborative Study on Macronutrients, Micronutrients, and Blood Pressure; CARDIA, Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults; INTERSALT, International Cooperative Study on the Relation of Blood Pressure to Electrolyte Excretion in Populations.
Total of 82% of patients on diuretics.
All or some participants had a history of high blood pressure.
Mean ± SD (all such values).
Date of study not reported; assumed date of submission.
Date of study not reported; assumed date of publication.
Mean.
No antihypertensive medications used or patients were normotensive.
Includes participants with high blood pressure and kidney stones and taking thiazide diuretics.
Range (all such values).
During run-in period for the trial, all patients had typical US diet (customary, self-selected diet), and patients were not then taking antihypertensive medications.
Participants were overweight and had prehypertension but were not taking antihypertensive medications; 1138 of 1159 patients provided urine.
No baseline values; used values of placebo group after 4 d.
Data from CARDIA study referenced in Loria et al (40) article (unpublished CARDIA data, 1990).
Patients had prehypertension but were not taking antihypertensive medications.
Participants receiving usual diet and not taking antihypertensive medications.
Median for 24-h urinary sodium.
Mean values from appendix II.
Used data from 4-wk control period.
Nineteen participants were taking antihypertensive medications, but authors noted that mean urine sodium was not different when these participants were excluded.
Twenty-four-hour urine samples from 345 of the 347 participants.
Patients with renal dysfunction and high blood pressure.
Five study participants in the “mean control” group provided 24-h urinary sodium.
Used data from all subjects in the “average salt” diet group.