FIGURE 8.

Parallel comparison for the induction of AMPs after recognition of microbial molecules in beetle, fly, and mammalian. The Lys-type PG-dependent Tenebrio Toll signaling pathway was previously reported by our group (30). Drosophila Toll and Imd pathways were reviewed by Lemaitre and Hoffmann (2). The mammalian β-defensin induction pathway was reported by Ganz and co-workers (40). Namely, mammalian Toll-like receptor (TLR)-dependent expression of AMPs in keratinocytes is induced by an activated cytokine, IL-1, which is directly inducible by TLRs of monocytes and macrophages (41). A plus sign in mammalian β-defensin induction pathway means the interaction between ligand and its receptor.