Table 1.
SSB intake and risk of type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome
| Ref. | Population (cases) | Age range (years) | Duration (years) | Dietary assessment method | Outcome | Results | Adjustment for potential confounders |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Montonen et al., 2007 (14) | 2,360 adults, Finnish Mobile Clinic Health Examination, Finland (177) | 40–69 | 12 | Diet history | Type 2 diabetes* | RR (95% CI) between extreme quartiles of median SSB intake (0 vs. 143 g/day): 1.67 (0.98–2.87); Ptrend = 0.01 | Age, sex, BMI, energy intake, smoking, geographic area, physical activity, family history of diabetes, prudent dietary score, and conservative pattern score |
| Paynter et al., 2006 (15) | 12,204 adults ARIC study, U.S. (718 men, 719 women) | 45–64 | 9 | FFQ | Type 2 diabetes† | Men: RR (95% CI) between extreme quartiles of SSB intake (<1 8-oz serving/day vs. ≥2 8-oz servings/day): 1.09 (0.89–1.33); Ptrend = 0.68. Women: RR (95% CI) between extreme quintiles of SSB intake: 1.17 (0.94–1.46); Ptrend = 0.05 | Race, age |
| Schulze et al., 2004 (16) | 91,249 women NHS II, U.S. (741) | 24–44 | 8 | 133-item FFQ | Type 2 diabetes† | RR (95% CI) between extreme quartiles of SSB intake (<1 serving/month vs. ≥1 serving/day: 1.83 (1.42, 2.36); Ptrend = <0.001 | Age, alcohol intake, physical activity, family history of diabetes, smoking, postmenopausal hormone use, oral contraceptive use, cereal fiber, magnesium, trans fat, ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fat, diet soft drinks, fruit juice, fruit punch |
| Palmer et al., 2008 (17) | 43,960 women BWHS, U.S. (2,713) | 21–69 | 10 | 68-item FFQ | Type 2 diabetes§ | RR (95% CI) between extreme quintiles of SSB intake (<1 12-oz serving/month vs. ≥ 2 12-oz servings/day: 1.24 (1.06–1.45); Ptrend = 0.002 | Age, family history of diabetes, physical activity, smoking, education, fruit drinks, orange and grapefruit juice, fortified fruit drinks, Kool-Aid, other fruit juices, red meat, processed meat, cereal fiber, coffee and glycemic index |
| Bazzano et al., 2008 (18); author correspondence | 71,346 women NHS, U.S. (4,529) | 38–63 | 18 | FFQ | Type 2 diabetes‡ | RR (95% CI) between extreme quintiles of SSB intake: (<1 12-oz serving/month vs. 2–3 12-oz servings/day): 1.31 (0.99–1.74); Ptrend = <0.001 | BMI, physical activity, family history of diabetes, postmenopausal hormone use, alcohol use, smoking, and total energy intake |
| Odegaard et al., 2010 (19) | 43,580 adults, Singapore Chinese Health study (2,273) | 45–74 | 5.7 | FFQ | Type 2 diabetes‡ | RR (95% CI) between extreme quintiles of SSB intake: (none vs. ≥2 8-oz servings/week): 1.42 (1.25–1.62); Ptrend = <0.0001 | Age, sex, dialect, year of interview, educational level, smoking, alcohol, physical activity, saturated fat, dietary fiber, dairy, juice, coffee |
| De Koning, 2010, personal communication | 41,109 male health professionals, U.S. (2,760) | 40–75 | 20 | FFQ | Type 2 diabetes† | RR (95% CI) between extreme quartiles of median SSB intake (0 vs. 0.79 serving/day): 1.14 (1.03–1.28); Ptrend = 0.0024 | Age, smoking, physical activity, alcohol, coffee, family history of type 2 diabetes |
| Nettleton et al., 2009 (11); author correspondence | 5,011 adults, MESA, U.S. (413) | 45–84 | 5 | FFQ | Type 2 diabetes‖ | RR (95% CI) between extreme quartiles of SSB intake (0 vs. ≥1 serving/day): 0.86 (0.62–1.17); Ptrend = 0.09 | Study site, age, sex, race, energy intake, education, physical activity, smoking, at least weekly supplement use, waist circumference |
| Nettleton et al., 2009 (11); author correspondence | 3,878 adults, MESA, U.S. (871) | 45–84 | 5 | FFQ | Metabolic syndrome¶ | RR (95% CI) between extreme quartiles of SSB intake (0 vs. ≥ 1 serving/day): 1.15 (0.92–1.42); Ptrend = 0.65 | Study site, age, sex, race, energy intake, education, physical activity, smoking, at least weekly supplement use, waist circumference |
| Dhingra et al., 2007 (13) | 6,039 adults, Framingham Offspring Study, U.S.A. (1,150) | 52.9 | 4 | FFQ | Metabolic syndrome# | RR (95% CI) between extreme quartiles of soft drink intake (0 vs. ≥1 12-oz serving/day): 1.39 (1.21–1.59)** | Age and sex |
| Lutsey et al., 2008 (12) | 9,514 adults ARIC, U.S. (3,782) | 45–64 | 9 | 66-item FFQ | Metabolic syndrome¶ | RR (95% CI) between extreme tertiles of SSB intake (0 vs. 1 median serving/day): 1.09 (0.99–1.19); Ptrend = 0.07 | Age, sex, race, education, center, total calories, smoking, physical activity, intake of meat, dairy, fruits and vegetables, whole grains, and refined grains |
ARIC, Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study; BWHS, Black Women's Health Study; MESA, Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis; NHS, Nurses' Health Study.
*National register confirmed by medical record.
†Presence of one of the following: 1) fasting glucose ≥126 mg/dl, 2) nonfasting glucose ≥200 mg/dl, 3) current use of hypoglycemic medication, and 4) self-report physician diagnosis.
‡Self-report of physician diagnosis and supplemental questionnaire.
§Confirmed self-report of physician diagnosis.
‖Presence of one of the following: 1) fasting glucose ≥126 mg/dl, 2) current use of hypoglycemic medications; and 3) self-report physician diagnosis.
¶Metabolic syndrome diagnosed according to the modified National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III criteria/American Heart Association guidelines as the presence of three or more of the following: 1) waist circumference ≥102 (men) or ≥88 cm (women), 2) triglycerides ≥150 mg/dl, 3) HDL cholesterol ≤40 (men) or ≤50 mg/dl (women), 4) blood pressure ≥130/85 mmHg or antihypertensive treatment, and 5) fasting glucose ≥100 mg/dl or antihyperglycemic treatment/insulin.
#Metabolic syndrome diagnosed according to the modified National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III definition/American Heart Association guidelines as the presence of three or more of the following: 1) waist circumference ≥102 (men) or ≥88 cm (women), 2) triglycerides ≥150 mg/dl, 3) HDL cholesterol ≤40 (men) or ≤50 mg/dl (women), 4) blood pressure ≥135/85 mmHg or antihypertensive treatment, and 5) fasting glucose ≥100 mg/dl or antihyperglycemic treatment/insulin.
**Includes diet and nondiet soft drinks.