Table 5.
Hierarchical Linear Models of Harsh Physical Punishment and Internalizing Behavior
| Parameter (N = 2,502) | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Random effects | |||||
| Families | 0.02* (.00) | 0.03* (.00) | 0.04* (.00) | 0.02* (.00) | 0.03* (.00) |
| Twins | 2.25* (.50) | 2.18* (.51) | 2.16* (.51) | 2.18* (.51) | 1.93* (.54) |
| Children | 15.84* (.62) | 15.67* (.63) | 15.67* (.63) | 15.64* (.63) | 15.91* (.67) |
| Fixed effects | |||||
| Intercept | 0.50 (1.75) | 0.42 (1.76) | 0.47 (1.78) | 0.42 (1.78) | 0.88 (1.88) |
| Gender of offspringa | −1.55* (.17) | −1.61* (.17) | −1.62* (.17) | −1.62* (.17) | 1.53* (.18) |
| Age of offspring | 0.31* (.14) | 0.31* (.14) | 0.30* (.14) | 0.30* (.14) | 0.26 (.15) |
| Square of age | 0.00 (.00) | 0.00 (.00) | 0.00 (.00) | 0.00 (.00) | 0.00 (.00) |
| Gender of twin parent | 0.17 (.20) | 0.11 (.20) | 0.12 (.20) | 0.13 (.20) | 0.01 (.25) |
| SES of twin parent | −0.21* (.06) | −0.19* (.06) | −0.19* (.06) | −.18* (.06) | −0.18* (.06) |
| Twin parent divorceb | 1.26* (.22) | 1.00* (.22) | 1.06* (.22) | 1.04* (.22) | 0.87* (.23) |
| Harsh punishment | |||||
| Individual child report (1) | 1.14* (.27) | ||||
| Individual child deviation (1) | 1.01* (.34) | 1.03* (.34) | 0.92* (.35) | ||
| Twin family deviation (2) | 1.34* (.38) | 0.44 (.60) | 0.51 (.61) | ||
| Extended family mean (3) | 1.79* (.44) | 1.96* (.59) | |||
| Zygosity of parentc | −0.06 (.26) | ||||
| Zygosity × Extended Family Mean | −0.61 (.92) | ||||
| AIC (smaller is better) | 13,530.3 | 13,492.7 | 13,487.8 | 12,165.9 | |
Note. All models control for parental depression, drug use, and alcohol use. Standard errors are given in parentheses. SES = socioeconomic status; AIC = Aikake’s information criterion.
a
0 = female, 1 = male.
b
0 = married, 1 = divorced.
c
0 = dizygotic, 1 = monozygotic.
*
p < .05.