Table 1. Comparison of Key Quality Principles in Positivist versus Critical-Interpretivist Studies.

Positivist Studies		Critical-Interpretive Studies
Principle	Explanation	Principle	Explanation
1. Over-arching principle of statistical inference (relating the sample to the population)	Research is undertaken on a sample that should be adequately powered and statistically representative of the population from which it is drawn	1. Over-arching principle of the hermeneutic circle (relating the parts to the whole)	Human understanding is achieved by iterating between the different parts of a phenomenon and the whole that they form
2. Principle of multiple interacting variables	The relationship between input and output variables is affected by numerous mediating and moderating variables, the complete and accurate measurement of which will capture “context”	2. Principle of contextualisation	Observations are context-bound and only make sense when placed in an interpretive narrative that shows how they emerged from a particular social and historical background
3. Principle of distance	Good research involves a clear separation between researcher and the people and organisations on which research is undertaken	3. Principle of interaction and immersion	Good research involves engagement and dialogue between researcher and research participants, and immersion in the organisational and social context of the study
4. Principle of statistical abstraction and generalisation	Generalisablity is achieved by demonstrating precision, accuracy and reproducibility of relationships between variables	4. Principle of theoretical abstraction and generalisation	Generalisability is achieved by relating particular observations and interpretations to a coherent and plausible theoretical model
5. Principle of elimination of bias	Good research eliminates bias through robust methodological designs (e.g., randomisation, stratification)	5. Principle of researcher reflexivity	All research is perspectival. Good research exhibits ongoing reflexivity about how the researchers' own backgrounds, interests, and preconceptions affect the questions posed, data gathered, and interpretations offered
6. Principle of a single reality amenable to scientific measurement	There is one reality which scientists may access, provided they use the right study designs, methods, and instruments	6. Principle of multiple interpretations	All complex social phenomena are open to multiple interpretations. “Success criteria” and “findings” will be contested. Good research identifies and explores these multiple “truths”.
7. Principle of empiricism	There is a direct relationship between what is measured and underlying reality, subject to the robustness of the methods and the precision and accuracy of the instruments	7. Principle of critical questioning	The “truth” is not what it appears to be. Critical questioning may generate insights about hidden political influences and domination. Ethical research includes a duty to ask such questions on behalf of vulnerable or less powerful groups.

Adapted from [10].