Table 1.
Characteristics of the sample.a
| Characteristic | Non-smoker (n = 922) % |
Current smoker (n = 216) % |
Total sample (n = 1138) |
P-valueb |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Media exposure | ||||
| Electronic media | ||||
| Television (h/day) | ||||
| Lowest third (0–1.6) | 36.6 | 31.9 | 35.7 | 0.30 |
| Middle third (1.7–2.6) | 31.9 | 37.0 | 32.9 | |
| Highest third (≥2.7) | 31.5 | 31.0 | 31.4 | |
| Films (no. of films seen in last 2 weeks) | ||||
| Lowest third (0–2) | 41.6 | 32.6 | 39.8 | 0.055 |
| Middle third (3–4) | 28.4 | 33.0 | 29.3 | |
| Highest third (≥5) | 30.0 | 34.4 | 30.9 | |
| Music (h/day) | ||||
| Lowest third (0–1) | 42.1 | 21.8 | 38.2 | <0.001 |
| Middle third (1.5–3) | 36.7 | 39.4 | 37.2 | |
| Highest third (≥4) | 21.2 | 38.9 | 24.6 | |
| Internet (h/day) | ||||
| Lowest third (0–1) | 40.8 | 38.4 | 40.3 | 0.36 |
| Middle third (1.5–3) | 37.4 | 35.2 | 37.0 | |
| Highest third (≥4) | 21.9 | 26.4 | 22.7 | |
| Video games (h/day) | ||||
| Lowest third (0) | 45.1 | 45.8 | 45.2 | 0.84 |
| Middle third (0.5–1) | 27.5 | 28.7 | 27.7 | |
| Highest third (≥1.5) | 27.4 | 25.5 | 27.0 | |
| Total electronic media (h/day) | ||||
| Lowest third (0–5.7) | 36.0 | 27.8 | 34.4 | 0.011 |
| Middle third (5.8–9.5) | 33.3 | 31.1 | 32.8 | |
| Highest third (≥9.6) | 30.7 | 41.0 | 32.8 | |
| Non-electronic media Books (h/day) | ||||
| Lowest third (0) | 47.8 | 68.8 | 51.8 | <0.001 |
| Middle third (0.5) | 24.2 | 14.0 | 22.3 | |
| Highest third (≥1) | 28.0 | 17.2 | 25.9 | |
| Newspapers/magazines (h/day) | ||||
| Lowest third (0) | 31.5 | 39.6 | 32.3 | 0.10 |
| Middle third (0.5) | 58.5 | 51.3 | 57.1 | |
| Highest third (≥1) | 10.1 | 9.1 | 10.0 | |
| Total non-electronic media (h/day) | ||||
| Lowest third (0–0.5) | 46.9 | 64.7 | 50.3 | <0.001 |
| Middle third (1) | 20.0 | 12.6 | 18.6 | |
| Highest third (≥1.5) | 33.0 | 22.8 | 31.1 | |
| Demographics | ||||
| Age, mean (SD) | 15.8 (1.2) | 16.2 (1.1) | 15.9 (1.2) | <0.001 |
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 47.3 | 46.7 | 47.2 | 0.89 |
| Female | 52.7 | 53.3 | 52.8 | |
| Race | ||||
| White | 92.1 | 94.4 | 92.5 | 0.27 |
| Black | 4.2 | 1.9 | 3.7 | |
| Other | 3.7 | 3.7 | 3.7 | |
| Parental education | ||||
| Level 1 | 35.4 | 40.6 | 36.4 | 0.004 |
| Level 2 | 29.0 | 35.8 | 30.3 | |
| Level 3 | 35.6 | 23.7 | 33.3 | |
| Family and peer smoking | ||||
| Parental smoking | ||||
| No | 66.7 | 41.2 | 61.9 | <0.001 |
| Yes | 33.3 | 58.8 | 38.2 | |
| Sibling smoking | ||||
| No | 82.8 | 57.4 | 78.0 | <0.001 |
| Yes | 17.2 | 42.7 | 22.0 | |
| Friend smoking | ||||
| No | 54.5 | 3.4 | 44.4 | <0.001 |
| Yes | 45.5 | 96.6 | 55.6 | |
| Other covariatesc | ||||
| Demanding parentingd, mean (SD): | 3.3 (0.6) | 3.1 (0.7) | 3.3 (0.6) | <0.001 |
| My parents have rules I have to follow | ||||
| My parents always want to know where I am | ||||
| Responsive parentingd, mean (SD): | 3.3 (0.6) | 3.1 (0.6) | 3.3 (0.6) | <0.001 |
| My parents listen to what I have to say | ||||
| My parents care about me | ||||
| Sensation seekinge, mean (SD): | 2.6 (0.6) | 3.1 (0.5) | 2.7 (0.7) | <0.001 |
| I like to do dangerous things | ||||
| I like to listen to loud music | ||||
| Rebelliousnessf, mean (SD): | 1.7 (0.5) | 2.3 (0.6) | 1.8 (0.6) | <0.001 |
| I get in trouble at school | ||||
| I do whatever my teacher says to dog | ||||
| Depressionh, mean (SD): | 1.6 (0.7) | 1.8 (0.7) | 1.7 (0.7) | <0.001 |
| Over the past 2 weeks, how often have you been bothered by these things?i | ||||
| (a) Little interest or pleasure in doing things | ||||
| (b) Feeling down, depressed, or hopeless | ||||
| Self-esteemj, mean (SD): | 3.1 (0.6) | 3.1 (0.6) | 3.1 (0.6) | 0.33 |
| I like myself the way I am | ||||
| I worry that other kids don’t like meg | ||||
| School achievement, mean (SD): | 3.4 (0.6) | 3.0 (0.6) | 3.3 (0.6) | <0.001 |
| I generally get good grades |
n, sample size; SD, standard deviation.
Values do not always sum to the total n because of missing data.
These P-values were computed with t-tests (for continuous variables) or Chi-squared tests (for discrete variables) and compared non-smokers with smokers.
Unless otherwise noted, these covariates were measured on a four-level Likert scale with response choices of 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, 4 = strongly agree.
Jackson C, Henriksen L, Foshee V. The authoritative parenting index: predicting health risk behaviors among children and adolescents. Health Educ Behav 1998;25:319–37.
Zuckerman M, Ball S, Black J. Influences of sensation seeking, gender, risk appraisal, and situational motivation on smoking. Addict Behav 1990;15:209–20.
Smith GM, Fogg CP. Psychological antecedents of teenage drug use. In: Simmons R, editor. Research in community and mental health: an annual compilation of research., vol. 1. Greenwich, CT: JAI; 1979. p. 87–102.
These items were reverse coded.
Spitzer RL, Williams JB, Kroenke K, et al. Utility of a new procedure for diagnosing mental disorders in primary care: the PRIME-MD 1000 study. JAMA 1994;272:1749–56.
Depression items were measured on a four-level Likert scale with response choices of 1 = not at all, 2 = several days, 3 = more than half the days, 4 = nearly every day.
Blascovich J, Tomaka J. Measures of self-esteem. In: Robinson JP, Shaver PR, Wrightsman LS, editors. Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes, 3rd ed. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research; 1993. p. 115–60.