Table I.
n | True β(0) | Assumed β(0) | Method | Assumed |
β1 (continuous) |
β2(binary) |
||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bias | SE | ESE | 95 per cent CI Cov. | Bias | SE | ESE | 95 per cent CI Cov. | |||||
100 | β(1) | β(1) | Subject Only | — | <1 | 0.127 | 0.127 | 95.2 | <1 | 0.274 | 0.275 | 94.6 |
α(0) | Subject+Proxy | — | −39 | 0.109 | 0.117 | 7.6 | 19 | 0.259 | 0.255 | 89.2 | ||
β(1) | ML-Model 1 | — | <1 | 0.127 | 0.128 | 94.7 | <1 | 0.270 | 0.273 | 94.6 | ||
β(1) | MI-Model 1 | 0.5 | <1 | 0.130 | 0.137 | 94.0 | <1 | 0.279 | 0.279 | 94.5 | ||
β(1) | MI-Model 1 | 0.8 | <1 | 0.130 | 0.131 | 94.0 | <1 | 0.279 | 0.274 | 95.3 | ||
α(0) | ML-Model 2 | — | −39 | 0.115 | 0.117 | 9.6 | 19 | 0.251 | 0.259 | 88.3 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 2 | 0.5 | −38 | 0.126 | 0.121 | 13.3 | 19 | 0.289 | 0.263 | 91.5 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 2 | 0.8 | −38 | 0.114 | 0.120 | 9.5 | 19 | 0.267 | 0.256 | 89.7 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | ML-Model 2 | — | 33 | 0.118 | 0.119 | 22.7 | −39 | 0.271 | 0.274 | 69.4 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 2 | 0.5 | 34 | 0.130 | 0.123 | 25.3 | −35 | 0.300 | 0.278 | 79.2 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 2 | 0.8 | 35 | 0.120 | 0.116 | 17.8 | −36 | 0.279 | 0.264 | 75.8 | ||
α(0) | ML-Model 3 | 0.5 | −37 | 0.173 | 0.172 | 42.8 | 17 | 0.341 | 0.349 | 91.1 | ||
α(0) | ML-Model 3 | 0.8 | −37 | 0.144 | 0.148 | 27.8 | 16 | 0.269 | 0.278 | 90.5 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 3 | 0.5 | −36 | 0.171 | 0.179 | 44.9 | 17 | 0.349 | 0.351 | 91.6 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 3 | 0.8 | −36 | 0.139 | 0.147 | 29.7 | 18 | 0.274 | 0.270 | 90.5 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | ML-Model 3 | 0.5 | 37 | 0.263 | 0.258 | 80.1 | −44 | 0.414 | 0.402 | 87.3 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | ML-Model 3 | 0.8 | 40 | 0.251 | 0.243 | 73.9 | −43 | 0.360 | 0.336 | 85.0 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 3 | 0.5 | 39 | 0.257 | 0.266 | 79.9 | −39 | 0.406 | 0.396 | 89.7 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 3 | 0.8 | 41 | 0.241 | 0.245 | 73.7 | −40 | 0.347 | 0.322 | 87.0 | ||
100 | α(0) | β(1) | Subject Only | — | 63 | 0.127 | 0.128 | 14.4 | −16 | 0.274 | 0.272 | 89.9 |
α(0) | Subject+Proxy | — | <1 | 0.109 | 0.119 | 92.3 | <1 | 0.258 | 0.256 | 95.0 | ||
β(1) | ML-Model 1 | — | 62 | 0.127 | 0.129 | 16.9 | −17 | 0.271 | 0.274 | 87.7 | ||
β(1) | MI-Model 1 | 0.5 | 63 | 0.127 | 0.133 | 18.3 | −17 | 0.278 | 0.285 | 88.1 | ||
β(1) | MI-Model 1 | 0.8 | 63 | 0.129 | 0.139 | 20.4 | −17 | 0.277 | 0.280 | 89.0 | ||
α(0) | ML-Model 2 | — | <1 | 0.116 | 0.119 | 93.5 | <1 | 0.250 | 0.256 | 94.0 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 2 | 0.5 | <1 | 0.126 | 0.119 | 96.3 | <1 | 0.287 | 0.259 | 96.8 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 2 | 0.8 | <1 | 0.114 | 0.120 | 93.6 | <1 | 0.267 | 0.271 | 94.3 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | ML-Model 2 | — | 118 | 0.118 | 0.117 | 0.0 | −47 | 0.270 | 0.275 | 45.6 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 2 | 0.5 | 120 | 0.130 | 0.124 | 0.0 | −47 | 0.300 | 0.272 | 54.1 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 2 | 0.8 | 120 | 0.121 | 0.124 | 0.0 | −45 | 0.280 | 0.271 | 49.7 | ||
α(0) | ML-Model 3 | 0.5 | 3 | 0.175 | 0.176 | 94.6 | −1 | 0.342 | 0.334 | 94.9 | ||
α(0) | ML-Model 3 | 0.8 | 2 | 0.147 | 0.147 | 95.0 | −1 | 0.267 | 0.270 | 94.5 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 3 | 0.5 | 4 | 0.170 | 0.177 | 95.5 | −1 | 0.346 | 0.339 | 95.8 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 3 | 0.8 | 4 | 0.141 | 0.156 | 92.1 | −2 | 0.274 | 0.285 | 93.2 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | ML-Model 3 | 0.5 | 128 | 0.268 | 0.259 | 7.4 | −51 | 0.417 | 0.401 | 74.8 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | ML-Model 3 | 0.8 | 127 | 0.248 | 0.229 | 2.5 | −51 | 0.358 | 0.333 | 64.1 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 3 | 0.5 | 129 | 0.257 | 0.272 | 11.0 | −51 | 0.407 | 0.408 | 73.6 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 3 | 0.8 | 129 | 0.242 | 0.244 | 4.8 | −49 | 0.346 | 0.326 | 64.2 | ||
100 | α(0)+0.75 | β(1) | Subject Only | — | −26 | 0.127 | 0.129 | 22.8 | 57 | 0.275 | 0.276 | 73.4 |
α(0) | Subject+Proxy | — | −54 | 0.109 | 0.117 | 0.0 | 87 | 0.258 | 0.252 | 42.3 | ||
β(1) | ML-Model 1 | — | −26 | 0.127 | 0.128 | 20.7 | 54 | 0.272 | 0.278 | 74.0 | ||
β(1) | MI-Model 1 | 0.5 | −25 | 0.128 | 0.135 | 30.0 | 55 | 0.276 | 0.291 | 75.4 | ||
β(1) | MI-Model 1 | 0.8 | −26 | 0.130 | 0.134 | 28.7 | 57 | 0.277 | 0.286 | 73.6 | ||
α(0) | ML-Model 2 | — | −55 | 0.116 | 0.119 | 0.0 | 84 | 0.250 | 0.252 | 43.2 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 2 | 0.5 | −54 | 0.125 | 0.118 | 0.1 | 87 | 0.290 | 0.262 | 52.0 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 2 | 0.8 | −54 | 0.114 | 0.123 | 0.0 | 86 | 0.267 | 0.261 | 46.7 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | ML-Model 2 | — | <1 | 0.118 | 0.115 | 94.7 | <1 | 0.271 | 0.266 | 95.2 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 2 | 0.5 | <1 | 0.130 | 0.121 | 97.2 | 1 | 0.303 | 0.271 | 97.3 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 2 | 0.8 | <1 | 0.120 | 0.116 | 95.7 | 2 | 0.279 | 0.281 | 94.4 | ||
α(0) | ML-Model 3 | 0.5 | −53 | 0.176 | 0.177 | 3.2 | 83 | 0.342 | 0.347 | 66.1 | ||
α(0) | ML-Model 3 | 0.8 | −53 | 0.144 | 0.146 | 0.1 | 80 | 0.268 | 0.261 | 50.5 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 3 | 0.5 | −53 | 0.170 | 0.176 | 5.0 | 84 | 0.347 | 0.353 | 65.6 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 3 | 0.8 | −52 | 0.139 | 0.152 | 0.9 | 84 | 0.273 | 0.273 | 51.4 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | ML-Model 3 | 0.5 | 3 | 0.268 | 0.258 | 95.5 | −6 | 0.417 | 0.387 | 97.2 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | ML-Model 3 | 0.8 | 2 | 0.244 | 0.216 | 96.3 | −5 | 0.352 | 0.320 | 97.1 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 3 | 0.5 | 5 | 0.261 | 0.271 | 95.4 | −6 | 0.412 | 0.410 | 97.3 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 3 | 0.8 | 3 | 0.237 | 0.241 | 95.7 | −4 | 0.341 | 0.347 | 95.5 | ||
250 | β(1) | β(1) | Subject Only | — | <1 | 0.079 | 0.082 | 94.1 | <1 | 0.172 | 0.172 | 94.5 |
α(0) | Subject+Proxy | — | −39 | 0.069 | 0.073 | 0.1 | 19 | 0.163 | 0.160 | 79.5 | ||
β(1) | ML-Model 1 | — | <1 | 0.080 | 0.080 | 94.6 | <1 | 0.171 | 0.175 | 94.3 | ||
β(1) | MI-Model 1 | 0.5 | <1 | 0.081 | 0.081 | 95.5 | <1 | 0.176 | 0.173 | 96.1 | ||
β(1) | MI-Model 1 | 0.8 | <1 | 0.081 | 0.080 | 95.8 | 1 | 0.175 | 0.182 | 94.2 | ||
α(0) | ML-Model 2 | — | −39 | 0.074 | 0.076 | 0.0 | 17 | 0.159 | 0.159 | 80.2 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 2 | 0.5 | −39 | 0.079 | 0.078 | 0.1 | 20 | 0.180 | 0.167 | 81.1 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 2 | 0.8 | −39 | 0.071 | 0.076 | 0.0 | 20 | 0.166 | 0.163 | 79.5 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | ML-Model 2 | — | 34 | 0.073 | 0.072 | 0.4 | −36 | 0.170 | 0.170 | 41.5 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 2 | 0.5 | 34 | 0.081 | 0.076 | 1.2 | −36 | 0.188 | 0.172 | 53.4 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 2 | 0.8 | 34 | 0.074 | 0.076 | 0.5 | −35 | 0.174 | 0.170 | 47.1 | ||
α(0) | ML-Model 3 | 0.5 | −37 | 0.107 | 0.111 | 7.8 | 15 | 0.209 | 0.207 | 87.7 | ||
α(0) | ML-Model 3 | 0.8 | −38 | 0.088 | 0.086 | 0.6 | 17 | 0.165 | 0.167 | 81.0 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 3 | 0.5 | −39 | 0.104 | 0.109 | 9.1 | 19 | 0.216 | 0.216 | 84.1 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 3 | 0.8 | −38 | 0.085 | 0.090 | 2.1 | 19 | 0.170 | 0.168 | 79.6 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | ML-Model 3 | 0.5 | 37 | 0.154 | 0.159 | 31.9 | −40 | 0.241 | 0.236 | 63.3 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | ML-Model 3 | 0.8 | 36 | 0.140 | 0.141 | 21.9 | −38 | 0.202 | 0.219 | 53.9 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 3 | 0.5 | 37 | 0.156 | 0.161 | 42.0 | −38 | 0.242 | 0.244 | 70.6 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 3 | 0.8 | 36 | 0.141 | 0.141 | 29.9 | −36 | 0.200 | 0.196 | 58.2 | ||
250 | α(0) | β(1) | Subject Only | — | 63 | 0.079 | 0.081 | 0.4 | −16 | 0.172 | 0.172 | 80.7 |
α(0) | Subject+Proxy | — | <1 | 0.068 | 0.073 | 93.8 | <1 | 0.162 | 0.160 | 95.7 | ||
β(1) | ML-Model 1 | — | 63 | 0.079 | 0.079 | 0.4 | −17 | 0.171 | 0.170 | 78.3 | ||
β(1) | MI-Model 1 | 0.5 | 64 | 0.081 | 0.083 | 0.5 | −16 | 0.174 | 0.175 | 81.8 | ||
β(1) | MI-Model 1 | 0.8 | 64 | 0.081 | 0.082 | 0.7 | −16 | 0.175 | 0.174 | 81.1 | ||
α(0) | ML-Model 2 | — | <1 | 0.074 | 0.075 | 93.8 | <1 | 0.159 | 0.160 | 94.1 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 2 | 0.5 | <1 | 0.078 | 0.073 | 96.9 | <1 | 0.180 | 0.170 | 96.2 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 2 | 0.8 | <1 | 0.071 | 0.075 | 94.0 | <1 | 0.166 | 0.161 | 96.2 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | ML-Model 2 | — | 119 | 0.073 | 0.072 | 0.0 | −47 | 0.170 | 0.169 | 9.5 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 2 | 0.5 | 120 | 0.081 | 0.077 | 0.0 | −46 | 0.188 | 0.170 | 16.2 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 2 | 0.8 | 119 | 0.074 | 0.073 | 0.0 | −46 | 0.174 | 0.166 | 11.5 | ||
α(0) | ML-Model 3 | 0.5 | 2 | 0.106 | 0.108 | 93.9 | <1 | 0.209 | 0.214 | 95.2 | ||
α(0) | ML-Model 3 | 0.8 | <1 | 0.087 | 0.087 | 94.5 | <1 | 0.165 | 0.161 | 94.1 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 3 | 0.5 | 1 | 0.104 | 0.108 | 93.8 | <1 | 0.215 | 0.225 | 94.0 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 3 | 0.8 | <1 | 0.085 | 0.087 | 94.7 | <1 | 0.170 | 0.166 | 95.3 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | ML-Model 3 | 0.5 | 122 | 0.152 | 0.148 | 0.0 | −48 | 0.238 | 0.236 | 31.3 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | ML-Model 3 | 0.8 | 122 | 0.141 | 0.135 | 0.0 | −48 | 0.201 | 0.186 | 14.5 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 3 | 0.5 | 122 | 0.153 | 0.159 | 0.0 | −47 | 0.240 | 0.236 | 37.5 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 3 | 0.8 | 122 | 0.142 | 0.142 | 0.0 | −47 | 0.202 | 0.190 | 17.3 | ||
250 | α(0)+0.75 | β(1) | Subject Only | — | −26 | 0.079 | 0.080 | 1.2 | 57 | 0.172 | 0.170 | 43.4 |
α(0) | Subject+Proxy | — | −54 | 0.069 | 0.074 | 0.0 | 86 | 0.163 | 0.160 | 7.5 | ||
β(1) | ML-Model 1 | — | −26 | 0.079 | 0.079 | 0.9 | 54 | 0.171 | 0.171 | 47.0 | ||
β(1) | MI-Model 1 | 0.5 | −26 | 0.081 | 0.081 | 3.1 | 57 | 0.175 | 0.174 | 48.2 | ||
β(1) | MI-Model 1 | 0.8 | −26 | 0.081 | 0.083 | 1.6 | 58 | 0.175 | 0.173 | 45.2 | ||
α(0) | ML-Model 2 | — | −55 | 0.074 | 0.075 | 0.0 | 85 | 0.159 | 0.160 | 8.0 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 2 | 0.5 | −55 | 0.079 | 0.076 | 0.0 | 86 | 0.181 | 0.162 | 12.6 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 2 | 0.8 | −54 | 0.071 | 0.075 | 0.0 | 87 | 0.166 | 0.158 | 9.0 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | ML-Model 2 | — | <1 | 0.073 | 0.073 | 94.7 | <1 | 0.170 | 0.174 | 94.1 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 2 | 0.5 | <1 | 0.082 | 0.076 | 96.1 | 1 | 0.189 | 0.177 | 96.3 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 2 | 0.8 | <1 | 0.074 | 0.075 | 94.3 | <1 | 0.174 | 0.174 | 94.6 | ||
α(0) | ML-Model 3 | 0.5 | −55 | 0.106 | 0.105 | 0.1 | 85 | 0.209 | 0.212 | 26.4 | ||
α(0) | ML-Model 3 | 0.8 | −54 | 0.088 | 0.087 | 0.0 | 83 | 0.165 | 0.163 | 11.4 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 3 | 0.5 | −54 | 0.105 | 0.110 | 0.0 | 86 | 0.216 | 0.216 | 29.5 | ||
α(0) | MI-Model 3 | 0.8 | −54 | 0.085 | 0.091 | 0.0 | 86 | 0.170 | 0.162 | 10.5 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | ML-Model 3 | 0.5 | 1 | 0.153 | 0.147 | 95.3 | −1 | 0.241 | 0.246 | 94.2 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | ML-Model 3 | 0.8 | 1 | 0.140 | 0.143 | 94.2 | −2 | 0.201 | 0.197 | 96.0 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 3 | 0.5 | 1 | 0.153 | 0.158 | 95.0 | −1 | 0.241 | 0.241 | 95.2 | ||
α(0)+0.75 | MI-Model 3 | 0.8 | 2 | 0.143 | 0.142 | 95.4 | −3 | 0.204 | 0.204 | 95.8 |
‘Subject Only’ refers to linear regression with only observed subject data, ‘Subject + Proxy’ refers to linear regression where proxy data substitutes for missing subject data, ML=maximum likelihood, MI=multiple imputation.