TABLE 1.

Potential mechanisms of preconditioning-like protection in the diabetic myocardium: Relevance to ischemic preconditioning

Alterations in glucose metabolism (45), high glucose acting as a preconditioning mimetic in nondiabetic myocytes (47,48)

Abnormal calcium handling – calcium preconditioning (50)

Increased production of reactive oxygen species (4,56) coupled with higher levels of antioxidants (42,49)

Increased activation of protein kinase C epsilon (64,65)

Increased mitogen-activated protein kinase activity, enhanced activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (51,52)

Increased phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt activity, endothelial nitric oxide synthase activity (48,53,54)

Increased hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha, vascular endothelial growth factor; decreased inflammation and fibrosis (55)