TABLE 3.
Regression-Adjusted Odds Ratios for Being Uninsured: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), 1996–2007
| Regression Covariate | Model 1, OR (95% CI) | Model 2, OR (95% CI) | Model 3, OR (95% CI) | Model 4, OR (95% CI) | Model 5, OR (95% CI) | Model 6, OR (95% CI) |
| Minimum wage | 0.638*** (0.617, 0.658) | 0.743*** (0.711, 0.776) | 0.570*** (0.544, 0.597) | 1.155*** (1.087, 1.227) | 0.999 (0.903, 1.107) | 0.960 (0.863, 1.069) |
| Below federal poverty limit, % | … | … | … | 1.020*** (1.016, 1.024) | 1.008** (1.002, 1.013) | 1.007* (1.002, 1.013) |
| Unemployed, % | … | … | … | 1.041*** (1.033, 1.049) | 1.021*** (1.011, 1.032) | 1.023*** (1.012, 1.034) |
| Member of labor union, % | … | … | … | 0.947*** (0.935, 0.958) | 0.990 (0.97, 1.01) | 0.989 (0.968, 1.009) |
| Represented by labor union, % | … | … | … | 1.039*** (1.026, 1.051) | 1.001 (0.983, 1.019) | 1.003 (0.985, 1.021) |
| Aged ≥ 25 and completed high school, % | … | … | … | 1.009*** (1.006, 1.012) | 1.003 (0.998, 1.009) | 1.003 (0.997, 1.009) |
| Aged ≥ 25 with bachelor's degree, % | … | … | … | 0.981*** (0.979, 0.983) | 0.998 (0.992, 1.003) | 0.997 (0.992, 1.003) |
| Income inequality (Gini coefficient) | … | … | … | 7.073*** (5.598, 8.935) | 1.425 (0.96, 2.114) | 1.200 (0.794, 1.814) |
| State EITC supplement (% of federal EITC) | … | … | … | 1.002** (1.001, 1.003) | 0.995*** (0.992, 0.997) | 0.995*** (0.992, 0.997) |
| Refundability status of state EITC supplementa | … | … | … | 0.956*** (0.932, 0.98) | 1.016 (0.979, 1.055) | 1.022 (0.983, 1.063) |
| TANF benefit income eligibility | … | … | … | 0.999*** (0.999, 0.999) | 1.000 (1, 1) | 1.000 (0.999, 1) |
| TANF maximum monthly benefit | … | … | … | 0.949** (0.917, 0.981) | 0.873*** (0.789, 0.966) | 0.922 (0.828, 1.027) |
| TANF work requirementsa | … | … | … | 0.751*** (0.712, 0.793) | 1.048 (0.968, 1.135) | 1.065 (0.982, 1.155) |
| TANF benefit time limitsa | … | … | … | 1.067*** (1.041, 1.093) | 0.999 (0.953, 1.048) | 1.000 (0.953, 1.049) |
| No. of hospital beds per 1000 population | … | … | … | 0.970*** (0.961, 0.978) | 1.023* (0.991, 1.057) | 1.018 (0.985, 1.052) |
| Per capita health care expenditures | … | … | … | 0.576*** (0.533, 0.622) | 0.822* (0.681, 0.991) | 0.836 (0.687, 1.017) |
| Avg Medicare outpatient reimbursement per enrollee | … | … | … | 1.295*** (1.227, 1.366) | 1.236*** (1.135, 1.345) | 1.260*** (1.154, 1.377) |
| State expansion to Medicaida | … | … | … | 0.955*** (0.937, 0.974) | 0.955*** (0.93, 0.982) | 0.954** (0.928, 0.981) |
| State has high-risk poola | … | … | … | 1.061*** (1.044, 1.077) | 0.962 (0.923, 1.003) | 0.963 (0.922, 1.005) |
| Parameters included in regression models | ||||||
| Time trend | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Individual controls | No | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Time-varying state covariates | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| State fixed effect | No | No | No | No | Yes | No |
| Substate region fixed effect | No | No | No | No | No | Yes |
Note. CI = confidence interval; EITC = Earned Income Tax Credit; OR = odds ratio; TANF = Temporary Aid to Needy Families. Ellipses indicate variable not included in model. Sample included 600 252 individual BRFSS respondents observed within 612 state–year combinations from the 50 states and the District of Columbia over the 12 years from 1996 through 2007. Outcome variable is an indicator of a negative response to the question, “Do you have any kind of health care coverage, including health insurance, prepaid plans such as HMOs, or government plans such as Medicare?” Some models also include adjustment for respondents' age, gender, race, and marital status as individual controls.
Binary indicator: variable coded as 0 (item not present) or 1 (item present).
*P < .05; **P < .01; ***P < .001.