(c)

	Long bone fracture models
	Open femoral fracture	Closed femoral fracture	Tibial fracture
Mouse	(i) Anesthesia	(i) Anesthesia	(i) Anesthesia
	(ii) Lateral exposure of femoral bone [78, 79]	(ii) Initial stabilization:	(ii) Less frequently performed [80]
	(iii) Fracture performance by osteotomy [78, 81]	(a) intramedullary pin [80, 82]	(iii) Fracture placement distal to keep fibula intact [80, 83, 84]
	(iv) Stabilization by extramedullary fixation:	(b) intramedullary screw [80, 82]
	(a) locking plate [80, 85]	(c) locking nail [86]
	(b) pin clip device [80, 81]	(iii) Closed fracture by 3-point bending system [26, 80, 82, 87, 88]
	(c) external fixator [80, 89, 90]
Rat	(i) Anesthesia	(i) Anesthesia	(i) Anesthesia
	(ii) Lateral exposure of femoral bone [91, 92]	(ii) Initial stabilization:	(ii) Closed fracture model [93, 94]:
	(iii) Medial exposure of femoral bone [91, 92]	(a) intramedullary steel pin [95–97]	(a) 3-point bending system
	(iv) Fracture performance by osteotomy [98, 99]	(b) intramedullary K-wire [95–97]	(b) 300 g weight from 20 cm height
	(v) Fracture stabilization:	(iii) Closed fracture by blunt guillotine:	(iii) Open fracture model [100, 101]:
	(a) intramedullary pin or K-wire [95, 96, 102–104]	(a) 500–650 g steel weight [87, 97, 102, 105]	(a) lateral exposure of tibia
	(b) combination of K-wire and 2 screws [99]	(b) 14 cm drop height [87, 97, 102, 105]	(b) fracture performance by osteotomy
	(c) plate osteosynthesis [106, 107]		(iv) Fracture stabilization:
	(d) external fixator [91, 108, 109]		(a) K-wire or modified needle [93, 101]
			(b) plate fixation [100, 110]
			(c) external fixator [111]
Pig	(i) Complex anesthesia	Not performed in trauma models	Not performed in trauma models
	(ii) Fracture is performed by captive bolt gun or osteotomy [112–115]
	(iii) Fracture remains commonly unstabilized [112–115]
	(iv) Intramedullary nailing is possible [116]