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Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and their roles within cells. Major ROS in cells include superoxide (O2•−), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl ions (•OH). O2•− is mainly generated by mitochondria or NADPH oxidase enzymes and induces cell proliferation and motility. O2•− is dismutated to H2O2 whose major role is in inducing apoptotic or necrotic cell death. Both O2•− and H2O2 can form macromolecule damaging hydroxyl ions that can contribute to senescence and cell death.
