Table 1.

Target sites and mechanisms of antifungal action of some biocides.

Target site	Mechanisms of action	Example biocides	References
Cell wall	1. Cross-linking of cell proteins and chitin	Gluteraldehyde	[35,41,52]
	2. Cell agglutination		[42]
Plasma membrane	1. Induction leakage of intercellular materials and protoplast lysis; loss of structural organization and integrity; disruption to physiological function	Chlorhexidine, QAC’s Ethanol	[53] [46] [47] [48]
	2. Alteration of membrane properties and switching on an efflux pump system; membrane perturbation	Organic acids	[54] [55] [49]
	3. Inhibition of the proton-motive force (Δcomponent); induction leakage of intercellular materials	Esters	[50]
	4. Inhibition of respiration and energy transfer; inhibition of ATP synthesis	QoI’s	[51]
	5. Interaction with ergosterol and destabilization of cell membrane functions; inhibition of cytochrome P450 in ergosterol biosynthetic pathway	DMI groups	[56]
	6. Inhibition of the electron transport system	Benzylcarbamate	[57]
DNA/RNA	Interferes with DNA and RNA synthesis	Pyrimidine analog: Flucytosine	[58,59]
Protein	1. Interaction with alkylating and oxidizing agents; binding to key functional groups of fungal enzymes	Heavy metals (-SH groups)	[60]
	2. Inhibition of cell division; bind to proteins of tubulin; cytoskeleton formation	Benzimidazole	[61]