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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2011 Mar 3.
Published in final edited form as: J Spec Pediatr Nurs. 2010 Apr;15(2):111–134. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-6155.2009.00223.x

Table 3.

Intervention Model: Nursing Research Studies on At-Risk Parent-Child Relationships: 1980-April, 2008

Source Design/Theory Focus/Measures Sample Results
Beeber, Holditch-Davis, Belyea, Funk, & Canuso (2004) RCT, pre- and post-test intervention pilot study/Synthesis of interpersonal theory of nursing and interpersonal therapy Testing a short-term, home-based depressive symptom intervention/Center for Epidemiological Studies – Depression scale, maternal-child observation n = 16 mothers, child ages 1–5 years, n = 10 African American, n = 6 Caucasian non-Hispanic, USA The intervention group showed a significantly greater decrease from baseline in depressive symptom severity at 8 and 16 weeks in contrast to the mothers receiving usual care. Observations of maternal interactions showed improvement in the intervention mothers.
Drummond, Fleming, McDonald, & Kysela (2005) Pre-test-post-test Experimental/No explicit theory Family problem-solving/Diagnostic Instrument for Screening Children, Family Problem Solving Instrument, Interactive Language Assessment Device n = 57 families, mothers (48) and fathers (41), grandmother (4), child mean age = 49.2 months, no racial/ethnicity data reported, Canada Parents participating in a family problem-solving intervention increased the amount of time spent playing with their children and time in cooperative parent-child interactions.
Gross et al. (2003) Experimental/No explicit theory Parent-child interactive behavior/multiple informants, Toddler Care Questionnaire, Parenting Scale, Videotaped interaction using the Dyadic Parent-Child Interactive Coding System – Revised, Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, Everyday Stressor Indicator, Neighborhood Problem Scale, Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory, Kohn’s Problem Checklist n = 208 parents, 77 teachers, parent-child dyads of 2- to 3-year-old children; 57% African American, 29% Latino, 3% Caucasian, 26 immigrants, USA Parent training led to more positive parent behavior but only when offered directly to the parents (as opposed to through teachers who were trained), all intervention parents reduced negative parent commands, no intervention effects were found for child negative behavior. Parent training was found to reduce negative child classroom behavior.
Horodynski & Gibbons (2004) Descriptive comparison/Barnard’s model of parent-child interaction Sensitivity to cues, response to distress/NCAST Teaching Scale n = 30 mothers, child mean age = 16 months, “predominantly Caucasian” (p. 301) only reported race/ethnic status, USA Mothers participating in Early Head Start were not significantly different in their mother-child interactions compared to a normed-referenced national sample. More than 40% of mothers remained at high risk for poor interaction.
Keefe, Barbosa, Froese-Fretz, Kotzer, & Lobo (2005) Multiple site RCT/parent-infant interaction framework based on a developmental psychobiologic perspective Evaluation of home-based nursing intervention for infant fussiness/crying, REST routine, incorporates use of infant behavior assessment, pattern recognition, individualized infant schedules, specific management strategies, parent education and support/Fussiness Rating scale n = 164 mothers and fathers, child ages 2–6 weeks, “predominantly Caucasian” (p. 234) only reported race/ethnic status, USA REST participants cried significantly less than control group at 8 weeks (1.2 hrs/day v. 3 hrs/day)
Keefe, Froese-Fretz, & Kotzer (1997) One-group, pre- and post-test design/parent-infant interaction framework based on a developmental psychobiologic perspective Refining and testing the REST infant irritability program/Infant irritability, Mother Infant Communication Screening, Parenting Stress Index n = 22 families, children ages 11 days to 8 weeks, all families Caucasian Infant fussiness decreased, mother-infant communication improved, primarily in the movement/visual, verbal, and touch areas, and parenting stress decreased after intervention.
Keefe, Karlsen, Lobo, Kotzer, & Dudley (2006); Keefe, Lobo, Froese-Fretz, Kotzer, Barbosa, & Dudley (2006) Two-site, randomized clinical trial/parent-infant interaction framework based on a developmental psychobiologic perspective Evaluation of the effectiveness of a home-based nursing intervention in reducing parenting stress in three groups of families with irritable infants/Parenting Stress Index – Short Form n = 121 families, mean infant age 5 weeks, majority Caucasian (control 71.2%, treatment group 81%), USA There was a reduction in parenting stress over time for both treatment and control groups, mothers in treatment group reported reduced parenting stress on the parent-child dysfunctional interaction subscale.
Tucker, Gross, Fogg, Delaney, & Lapporte (1998) Two-group experimental/Bandura’s self-efficacy, Webster-Stratton behavioral parent training intervention Examine whether parent training effects were maintained at 1-year follow-up, determine if there were effects not evident at 3 months that were evident at 1 year, examine if dosage was associated with change in parent-child outcomes/multiple informants, Toddler Care Questionnaire, Parenting Scale, Videotaped interaction using the Dyadic Parent-Child Interactive Coding System – Revised, Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, Everyday Stressor Indicator, Neighborhood Problem Scale, Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory, Kohn’s Problem Checklist. n = 11 families and 12 children in intervention group, 12 families and 12 children in comparison group, 78% Caucasian, 22% African American, 4% Hispanic, USA Significant gains in maternal self-efficacy, decreases in maternal stress, and improvements in mother-child interactions were maintained at 1 year post intervention. Minimal intervention effects were found for fathers.