Figure 5.

Schematic representation of the hypothetic evolution of DA systems at the protochordate–vertebrate transition. The anterior neural tube of a chordate ancestor contained periventricular photoreceptor cells intermingled with neuroendocrine cells synthesizing dopamine and peptides such as vasopressin or somatostatin. These cells could also be connected to other part of the CNS, in particular a central pattern generator. These cell types are lining the anterior neural ventricle and contact the CSF. A reminiscent but derived situation is found in modern protochordates such as ascidia (superior right part of the schematics) where photoreceptor cells line the ventricle and are adjacent to the DA cells of the sensory vesicle, and which are able to modulate the motor response to light. In craniates/vertebrates, the telencephalon has tremendously increased in size, and the optic vesicle becomes separated from the anterior hypothalamus by bulging out of the neural tube. Several “new” DA systems have been co-opted simultaneously, mostly in the mesencephalon and the basal plate three first prosomeres. These DA cells homologous to those of the SN/VTA project on the dorsal and ventral pallium, representing a major innovation of vertebrates, with strong adaptive properties. The retina comprised several cell types inherited from the protochordate ancestor, including at least photoreceptor cells, pigmented epithelium, and amacrine DA cells.