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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2012 Oct 1.
Published in final edited form as: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2010 Dec 13;51(4):548–553. doi: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2010.12.004

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Regulation of the AMPK signaling cascade. The intracellular AMP/ATP ratio is a primary regulator of the system. Increased AMP/ATP activates AMPK via three mechanisms 1) allosteric activation; 2) promotes the Thr 172 phosphorylation of the α- AMPK by its upstream kinase (AMPKK) such as LKB1, and 3) prevents protein phosphatase from dephosphorylating AMPK. Stress can also directly activate the CAMKKβ via increased intracellular calcium levels. It is proposed that certain stresses may directly affect the dephosphorylation process by yet undetermined mechanisms. AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase; AMPKK, AMPK-kinase; CaMKKβ, Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase β; TAK1, transforming growth factor-β activated kinase 1; CD, catalytic domain; GBD, glycogen binding domain; N, NH2-terminus of subunits; CBS, cystathionine-β-synthase motif.