Table 1.

Molecular Imaging Techniques That Are Currently Being Used to Study Host Responses to Cancer, Inflammatory and Autoimmune Diseases, and Other Medical Conditions, Which Could Also Be Applied to Research on Respiratory Viral Infections

Host response	Imaging methods	Current status
Apoptosis resulting from infection or inflammation	SPECT imaging with 99mTc radiolabeled annexin-V for pulmonary disease [21].	Laboratory animals
Triggering of type I interferon response	BLI imaging of transgenic mice in which luciferase expression is driven by an IFN-beta promoter [22].	Laboratory animals
Identification of sites of inflammation	Intravenous infusion of 67Ga-citrate, which binds to transferrin and lactoferrin and localizes to sites of increased vascular flow and permeability [23].Intravenous infusion of 111In-labeled immunoglobulin, followed by planar gamma camera and SPECT imaging [23].Intravenous infusion of 18F-FDG, followed by PET imaging to detect foci of increased glycolytic activity [24].In vitro labeling of leukocytes with 111 In oxine or leukocyte labeling with 99mTc-exametazime (also known as 99mTc-HMPAO), for planar gamma camera imaging or SPECT [25, 26].Identification of activated monocytes/macrophages by infusion of superparamagnetic iron oxide particles, followed by MRI [25].	Clinical practice,Preclinical research,Laboratory animals
Alterations in the size and structure of regional lymph nodes	Characterization of lymph node structure by infusion of superparamagnetic iron oxide particles, followed by MRI [26].	Laboratory animals
Activation of vascular endothelium	Detection of increased cell-surface ICAM-1 or E-selectin expression with radiolabeled antibodies [27] [28].Detection of increased E-selectin expression by MR, using superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles labeled with specific antibody [29].	Laboratory animals

NOTE. Column 3 indicates whether the procedures are in clinical use, are being employed in preclinical studies in humans, or are limited to imaging of laboratory animals.