Table 1.
Randomized Controlled Trials Testing Health Benefits of Qigong and Tai Chi
| Source | No. of Subjects/Mean Age Sex (Male/Femal e) | Exercise Duration (minutes × days per week) | Exercise Group | Control group | Reported Outcomes * P<.05 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Audette Jin Newcomer Stein Duncan & Frontera, 2006 USA | 27 Sedentary women 71.4 years 0/27 | 12 weeks (60 minutes × 3 days) | Tai Chi 10 movement Yang (n=11) | Brisk Walking (n=8); Usual Care (UC) later recruited and not randomized (n=8) |
Cardiopulmonary: VO2 max ↑ in TC more than BW and UC*; heart rate variability, high frequency ↑ and low frequency ↓ in TC only* no between Falls and Balance: Strength, hand grip and knee extension ↑ TC only* and left knee extension ↑ in TC more than BW *; flexibility, only toe touch flexibility ↑ in TC more than BW*; and balance, only non-dominant one leg stance (OLS) with eyes closed ↑ in TC more than BW* |
| Barrow Bedford Ives O’Toole & Channer, 2007 UK | 52 Older adults history chronic heart failure 69.5 years 42/10 | 16 weeks (55 minutes × 2 days) | TC with Chi Kung (n=25) | Usual Care (n=27) |
Cardiopulmonary: Incremental shuttle walk ↑ in TC more than UC ns Patient Reported Outcomes: Perceived symptoms of heart failure ↓ in TC more than UC* Psychological: Depression (SCL-90-R) ↓ in TC more than UC ns; anxiety ↓ in both groups ns |
| Brismee Paige Chyu Boatright Hagar McCaleb Quintela Feng Zu Shen, 2007 USA | 41 History of knee osteoarthritis 70 years 7/34 | 12 week TC and 6 week no training (40 minutes × 3 days/6 weeks group training and 6 weeks home training; and 6 weeks detraining) | TC Yang 24-form simplified (n=18) | 6 weeks of Health Lecture followed by no activity same as exercise group (n=13) |
Physical Function: WOMAC ↑ in TC more than HL* with ↓ for detraining period Patient Reported Outcomes: Pain ↓ in TC more than HL*; adverse outcomes ns |
| Burini Farabollini Ianucci, Rimatori Riccardi Capecci Provinciali & Ceravolo, 2006 Italy | 26 History of Parkinson’s disease 65 years 9/17 | 7 weeks each of Aerobics (45 min × 3 days) and Qigong (50 min × 3 days) 20 sessions each with 8 weeks between sessions | Qigong (QG) (n=11) | Aerobic Training (AT) sessions (n=11) |
Cardiopulmonary: 6-minute walk and Borg scale for breathlessness ↑ and spirometry and cardiopulmonary exercise test ↓ for AT more than QG* Patient Reported Outcomes: Parkinson’s Disease Questionnaire ns for both; Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale ns; Brown’s Disability Scale ns Psychological: Beck Depression Inventory ns |
| Chan Qin Lau Woo Au Choy Wingyee Lee & Lee, 2004 Hong Kong | 132 History of post-menopausal and sedentary 54 years 0/132 | 12 months (45 min 5 × days) | Tai Chi Chuan Yang Style (n=54) | UC (n=54) |
Bone Density: Fractures (1 TC and 3 UC) BMD measured by Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry in femoral neck, ↓ in TC less than UC ns and trochanter ↓ both ns; peripheral quantitative computed tomography of distal and ultradistal tibia ↓ less in TC than UC* |
| Channer Barrow Barrow Osborne & Ives 1996 UK | 126 History of MI 58.5 years ?/? | 8 weeks (2 days × 3 weeks, then 1 day × 5 weeks) | TC Wu Chian-Ch’uan (n=38) | Aerobic Exercise (n=41) or Cardiac Support Group (n=41) discussed risk factor modification and problems in rehab. |
Cardiopulmonary: Immediate SBP and DBP ↓ TC and AE ns and HR ↑ in AE more than TC *; Over time, SBP ↓ both ns and DBP and resting HR↓ in TC more than AE *; SG too small for comparison |
| Chen Yeh & Lee 2006 Taiwan | 87 History of BMD T ≥ −2.5 45 years 0/87 | 12 week (studied for 2 weeks, then 3 days/week) | QG Baduanjin (n=44) | No Qigong (n=43) |
Bone Density: BMD maintained in QG and ↓ in NQ*; Immune/Inflammation: Interleukin-6↓ in QG and ↑ in NQ* |
| Cheung Lo Fong Chan Wong Wong Lam Lau Karlberg 2005 Hong Kong | 88 Older adults in community, history of hypertension 54.5 years 37/51 | 16 wk (120 min × 2 days × 4 weeks then monthly and encouraged to practice 60 min in AM and 15 min in PM × 7 days) | QG Guolin (n=37) | Exercise (n=39) |
Cardiopulmonary: BP, HR, waist circumference, BMI, Total cholesterol, renin and 24 hour urinary protein excretion ↓ QG and E ns; ECG QG and E nc/ns QOL: SF-36 ↓ E ns Psychological: Beck Anxiety Inventory ↓ and Beck Depression Inventory ↑ QG and E ns |
| Choi Moon & Song 2005 South Korea | 59 Living in care facility, ambulatory with history of at least 1 fall risk factor 77.8 years 15/44 | 12 weeks (35 min × 3 days) | Tai Chi Sun-style (n=29) | UC (n=30) |
Falls and Balance: Falls ns, but falls efficacy for TC ↑ and ↓ UC*; knee and ankle strength, OLS eyes open, and Toe reach ↑ and 6 meter walk ↓ more than UC*; OLS eyes open nc Self-efficacy: Falls efficacy for TC↑ and ↓ UC* |
| Chou Lee Yu Macfarlane Cheng Chan & Chi 2004 Hong Kong | 14 Community dwelling Chinese, history of depression from a psycho- geriatric clinic 72.6 years 7/7 | 3 months(45 min × 3 days) | Tai Chi Yang Style18 form (n=7) | Waitlist (n=7) |
Psychological: Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale ↓ TC more than W* |
| Elder, Ritenbaugh Mist Aickin Schneider Zwickey & Elmer 2007 USA | 92 History of completing 12 week wt loss intervention and loss of at least 3.5 kg 47.1 years 13/79 | 24 weeks (10 hours overall with 28 min qigong sessions) | Qigong Emie Zhen Gong (n=22) | Tapas Acupressure Technique (n=27) and Self-Directed Support (n=24) |
Cardiopulmonary: Wt loss maintenance for TAT and ↑ QG and SDS* |
| Faber Bosscher Chin Paw & vanWieringe n 2006 Netherlands | 238 Frail (51%) or pre-frail (48.9%) older adults living in care facility 85 years 50/188 | 20 week (60 min exercise and 30 min social time × day × 4 weeks for socializatio n, then × 2 days for 16 weeks) | Tai Chi (balance exercises inspired by TC) (n=90) | Functional Walking (n=66) or UC (92) |
Falls and Balance: Falls lower for TC more than FW and UC ns; When FW and TC combined, Fall risk↓ and physical function (6 meter walk, Timed chair stand, TUG, and FICSIT-4) ↑ compared to UC in pre-frail*, frail ns, also TC compared to FW ns Patient Reported Outcomes: Performance Oriented Mobility Assessment ↑ for TC and FW and exercise groups combined more than UC* and pre-frail*, frail ns; Groningen Activity Restriction Scale ↓ for FW more than control* TC vs UC ns |
| Fransen Nairn Winstanley Lam & Edmons 2007 Austrailia | 152 Older adults, history of chronic symptomatic hip or knee osteoarthritis 70.8 years 40/112 | 12 week (60 min × 2 days) | TC for Arthritis by Dr. Lam from Sun Style 24-forms (n=56) | Hydrotherapy (n=55) and Wait List control (n=41) |
Physical Function: WOMAC: Pain and function ↓ TC and H ns with treatment effect for physical function moderate*; pain score ↓ for H compared to WL*, TC ns; Physical performance: TUG, 50-foot walk, and stair climb ↓ more for H than WL*; and timed stair climb for ↓ TC and H ns QOL: SF-12 Physical ↑ H more than WL* and TC more than WL borderline*; SF-12 Mental ns Patient Reported Outcomes: Pain and function ↓ TC and H ns Psychological: Depression Anxiety & Stress 21 ↓ in H* and TC ns |
| Galantino Shepard Krafft Laperriere Ducette Sorbello Barnish Condoluci & Farrar 2005 USA | 38 History of long term care of HIV/AIDS Between 20 and 60 38/0 | 8 weeks (60 minx 2 days) | TC (n=13) | Aerobic Exercise (n=13) and UC (n=12) |
Physical Function: FR, SR, Sit Up, and Physical Performance Test all improved more than UC* and TC compared to AE nc QOL: Medical Outcomes Short Form-HIV improved TC and AE more than control*; Spiritual Well Being improved TC AE and UC ns Psychological: Profile of Mood States improved TC and AE more than control* |
| Gatts and Woollacott 2006 USA | 19 Balance impaired seniors 68–92 years 2/17 | 3 weeks (90 min × 5 days) | Tai Chi Twelve Classical Tai Chi Postures (n=11) | TC Based and axial mobility program; same group practiced TC after control time (n=8) |
Falls and Balance: TUG ↓ more for TC than control*; FR↑ for TC and control; OLS and tandem stance both legs ↑ more TC than control*; tibialis anterior more ↑ for TC than control*; gastrocnemius ↑ only TC after control time* |
| Gemmell & Leathem 2006 New Zealand | 18 History of traumatic brain injury symptoms 45.7 years 9/9 | 6 weeks (45 min × 2 days) | TC Chen Style (n=9) | Waitlist UC (n=9) |
QOL: SF-36 and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale no different ns except role emotional ↑ TC more than UC* Psychological: Visual Analogue Mood Scales improved TC more than UC*; Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale nc, ns |
| Greenspan Wolf Kelley O’Grady 2007 USA | 269 Congregate independent living, transitionally frail with at least 1 fall in past year >70 years and 50% over 80 0/269 | 48 week (60 increasing to 90 min × 2 days) | TC 6 simplified forms (n=103) | Wellness Education (n=102) |
Physical Function: Sickness Impact Profile for physical function and ambulation ↓ more TC than WE* Patient Reported Outcomes: Sickness Impact Profile and physical and ambulation perceived health status ↓ TC more than WE* and Self Reported Health nc TC and WE ns |
| Hammond & Freeman 2006 UK | 133 History of fibromyalgia from a rheumatology outpatient department 48.53 years 13/120 | 10 weeks (45 min × 1 day) | Tai Chi for Arthritis (part of patient Education group including fibromyalg ia informatio n, postural training, stretching and weights) (n=52) | Relaxation Group (n=49) |
Self-efficacy: Arthritis Self-Efficacy Scale ↑ TC more than RG at 4 months* at 8 months ns Patient Reported Outcomes: Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire ↓ TC more than RG* at 4 months* at 8 months ns Psychological: Anxiety and depression TC and TG ns |
| Hart Kanner Gilboa-Mayo Haroeh-Peer Rozenthul-Sorokin Eldar 2004 Israel | 18 History of stroke, community- dwelling 54.77 years 16/2 | 12 weeks (60 min × 2 days) | TCC (n=9) | Balance Exercises (n=9) |
Falls and Balance: BBS, OLS, Emory Fractional Ambulation Profile, Romberg, TUG improved in BE*, not TCC ns QOL: Duke Health Profile improved TC*, not BE ns |
| Hartman Manos Winter Hartman Li & Smith 2000 USA | 33 Community dwelling with lower extremity osteoarthritis 68 years 4/28 | 12 weeks (60 min × 2 days) | TC 9 form Yang (n=18) | Usual Care with phone calls every 2 weeks to discuss issues related to Osteoarthritis (n=15) |
Physical Function: OLS, 50-ft walk, and chair rise TC and UC ns with small to moderate effect size for TC only QOL: Arthritis Impact Measurement Scale II(satisfaction with life) ↑ and tension ↓ more for TC than UC* Pain and mood both ns Self-efficacy: Arthritis self-efficacy ↑ TC more than UC* |
| Hass Gregor Waddell Oliver Smith Fleming Wolf 2004 USA | 28 Older adults transitioning to frailty 79.6 years ?/? | 48 weeks(60 min × 2 days) | Tai Chi 8 of 24 simplified forms (n=14) | Wellness Education (n=14) |
Falls and Balance: Center of pressure during S1 and S2 improved for TC more than WE* S3 for both ns |
| Irwin Olmstead & Oxman 2007 USA | 112 Healthy older adults 70 years 41/71 | 16 weeks (40 min × 3 days) | Tai Chi Chih (n=59) | Health Education (n=53) |
QOL: SF-36 improved for physical functioning, bodily pain, vitality and mental health for TC more than HE*; Role emotional ↓ for HE more than TC*; Role physical, general health, and social functioning both groups ns Psychological: Beck Depression Score ↑ TC and HE ns Immune/Inflammation: Varicella zoster virus-Responder cell frequency ↑ TC more than HE* |
| Irwin Pike Cole & Oxman 2003 USA | 36 Healthy older adults 60 years 5/13 | 15 week (45 min × 3 days) | Tai chi Chih (n=14) | Wait List (n=17) |
QOL: SF-36 only role-physical and physical functioning improved more for TC than WL* Immune/Inflammation: Varicella zoster virus-cell-mediated immunity ↑ more for TC than WL* |
| Jin 1992 Australia | 96 Tai Chi practitioners 36.2 years 48/48 | History of TC 46.4 mo males/34 months females 2 sessions of exposure to stress followed by respective treatment | Tai Chi Long form or Yang Style (n=24) | Brisk Walking (n=24), TC Meditation (n=24), and Neutral Reading (n=24) |
Psychological: Profile of Mood States improved all treatments* with state anxiety ↓ in TC more than reading*; BP and HR ↑ under stress for TC and BW more than M and NR*; Adrenaline ↓ more for TC than M*; noradrenaline ↑ more for TC than NR*; and salivary cortisol ↑ all groups* |
| Judge Lindser Underwook & Winsemius 1993 USA | 21 Sedentary women 68 years 0/21 | 6 months(20 min walking plus other exercise × 3 days for TC and no exercise for 12 weeks, then 30 min x1 day for FT) | Tai Chi simple with strength training and walking (n=12) | Flexibility Training (n=9) |
Falls and Balance: OLS ↑ more for TC than FT ns; knee extension ↑ more for TC than FT*; and sitting leg press improved TC and FT ns |
| Kutner, Barnhart, Wolf, McNeely, & Xu 1997 USA | 130 TC Balance training and control mostly women/Healthy older adults 76.2 years ?/? | 15 weeks (45 min total × 2 days TC and 1 day BT and ED) | TC 10 modified forms from 108 (n=51) | Balance Training (n=39) and Education Control (n=40) |
QOL: SF-36 all groups nc Self-efficacy: Self confidence ↑ more for TC and BT than EC* Psychological: Rosenberg self esteem ↑ more TC than BT or EC ns |
| Lansinger Larsson Persson & Carlsson 2007 Sweden | 122 History of long term nonspecific neck pain 43.8 years 36/86 | 3 month (1 hour × 1–2 days/week × 10–12 sessions) | Qigong Biyun (n=60) | Exercise Therapy (n=62) |
Physical Function: Grip strength and Cervical ROM ↑ both groups ns Patient Reported Outcomes: Neck pain and Neck Disability Index ↓ both groups ns |
| Lee Lee Kim & Choi 2004a AND Lee Lim & Lee 2004b Korea | 36 History of hypertension 53.4 years 14/22 | 8 wk (30 min × 2 days) | Qigong Shuxinping xuegong (n=17) | WaitList (n=19) |
Cardiopulmonary: (2004a) BP ↓ more in QG than WL*; HDL and APO-A1 ↑ more in QG than WL*; high-density lipoprotein and Apolipoprotein A1 ↑ and total cholesterol ↓ in QG pre-post*; Triglycerides ↓ in QG and ↑ in WL ns Self-efficacy: (2004b) Self efficacy and perceived benefits↑ in QG and ↓ in WL* Psychological: (2004b) Emotional state ↑ in QG and ↓ in WL* |
| Lee Lee Kim & Moon 2003a AND Lee Lee Choi & Chung 2003b Korea | 58 History of hypertension 56.2 years | 10 weeks (30 min × 3 days) | Qigong Shuxinping xuegong (n=29) | UC WaitList (n=29) |
Cardiopulmonary: (2003a) HR ↓ more in QG than WL*; Epinephrine and norepinephrine ↓ for QG and ↑ for WL*; cortisol ↓ for QG and ↑ for WL ns Psychological: (2003a) Self report stress↓ QG more than WL*; Epinephrine and norepinephrine ↓ for QG and ↑ for WL*; cortisol ↓ for QG and ↑ for WL ns Cardiopulmonary: (2003b) BP and catecholamines ↓ for QG and ↑ for UC*; Ventilatory function ↑ more for QG than UC* |
| Lee Y. K. Lee & Woo 2007a Hong Kong | 139 Resident of care facility, ambulatory, Chinese and 82.7 years 45/96 | 26 weeks (60 min × 3 days) | Tai Chi (n=66) | UC (n=73) |
QOL: Health Related Quality of Life ↑ TC more than UC* Psychological Symptoms: Self Esteem ↑ TC more than UC* |
| Li Fisher Harmer & Shirai 2003 USA | 48 Older adults 68.88 years | 3 months (3 days/wk) | Tai Chi Yang 8- form easy Tai Chi (n=26) | Stretching Control (n=22) |
Falls and Balance: OLS improved TC more than SC* Physical Function: SF-12 physical, instrumental activities of daily living, 50-ft walk, and chair rise all improved TC more than SC* Psychological: SF-12 mental ↑ more TC than SC* |
| Li Fisher Harmer Irbe Tearse & Weimer 2004 USA | 118 History of moderate sleep complaints and community dwelling adults 75.4 years 22/96 | 24 week (60 min × 3 days) | Tai chi Yang (n=62) | Exercise Control (n=56) |
Physical Function: OLS and SF-12 physical ↑; and chair rise and 50-ft walk ↓ TC more than EC* Patient Reported Outcomes: Sleep duration and efficiency ↑ and sleep quality, latency, duration, and disturbances; Epworth Sleepiness Scale; and Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index ↓ more for TC than EC*; Sleep dysfunction both and medication ↓ TC only ns Psychological: SF-12 mental ↑ both ns |
| Li Harmer Fisher McAuley Chaumeton Eckstrom & Wilson 2005b AND Li Fisher Harmer & McAuley 2005a USA | 256 Sedentary 77.48 years 77/179 | 6 month (60 min × 2 days) | TC Yang Style 24 forms (n=125) | Stretching Control (n=131) |
Falls and Balance: (2005b) Fewer falls and fewer injurious falls for TC than SC*; and BBS, Dyamic Gait Index, FR and OLS ↑ and 50 ft walk and TUG ↓ more for TC than SC* all sustained at 6 month follow-up Falls and Balance: (2005a) Activities Specific Balance ↑ more for TC than SC* Self-efficacy: (2005a) Falls Self-efficacy↑ (mediator) and fear of falling (SAFFE) ↓ more for TC than SC* Psychological: Fear of falling (SAFFE) ↓ more for TC than SC* |
| Li Harmer McAuley Duncan Duncan Chaumeton & Fisher 2001a USA | 49 Sedentary and community dwelling 72.8 years 9/85 | 6 month (60 min × 2 days) | Tai Chi Yang style 24 forms (n=49) | WaitList (n=45) |
Physical Function: SF-20 (physical function) ↑ more TC than WL* |
| Li Harmer McAuley Fisher Duncan & Duncan 2001b AND Li Fisher Harmer & McAuley 2002 AND Li Harmer Chaumeton Duncan Duncan 2002 AND Li McAuley Harmer Duncan & Chaumeton 2001 USA | 94 Sedentary 72.8 years 9/85 | 6 month (60 min × 2 days) | Tai Chi Yang style 24 forms (n=49) | WaitList (n=45) |
Physical Function: (2001b) SF-20 physical Function ↑ among TC more than WL over time* r scores Self-efficacy: (2001b) Self-efficacy ↑ among TC more than WL over time* r scores QOL: (2002) SF −20 (General Health Survey) ↑ more for TC than WL*; TC with lower levels of health perception, physical function, and high depression at baseline and Movement confidence ↑ = ↑ physical function * Psychological: (2002) Physical function self-esteem and Rosenberg self-esteem ↑ more for TC than WL* Self-efficacy: (2001) Barrier and performance Self-efficacy ↑ TC more than WL*; exercise adherence ↑ TC than WL*; and SE conditions related to adherence for TC |
| Maciaszek Osinski Szeklicki & Stemplewske 2007 Poland | 49 Sedentary, history of osteopenia or osteoporosis 60 to 82.1 years 49/0 | 18 week (45 min × 2 days) 3 month (20 min × 1 day) | Tai Chi 24 form (n=25) | UC (n=24) |
Falls and Balance: Posturographic Platform (time ↓; % task performance and total length of path ↑ for TC*; and % task performance and total length of path ↑ more for TC than UC* |
| Mannerkorpi & Arndorw 2004 Sweden | 36 History of Fibromyalgia 45 years 0/36 | Qigong with Body Awareness (n=19) | UC (n=17) |
Physical Function: Chair stand and hand grip TC and UC ns Patient Reported Outcomes: Body Awareness ↑ TC more than UC*; fibromyalgia symptoms TC and UC ns |
|
| Manzaneque Vera Maldonado Carranque et al. 2004 Spain | 29 Healthy young adults 18–21 14/15 | 1 month (30min × 5 days) | Qigong Eight Pieces of Brocade (low intensity) (n=16) | UC (n=13) |
Immune/Inflammation: Leukocytes, eosoinophils, monocytes, and C3 levels ↓ TC than UC*; trend for neutrophils; and total lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, t helper lymphocytes, concentrations of complement C4 or immunoglobulins ns |
| McGibbon Krebs Parker Scarborough Wayne & Wolf 2005 USA | 36 History of vestibulopath y 59.5 years 16/20 | 10 weeks (70 min × 1 day) | Tai Chi Yang (n=19) | Vestibular Rehabilitation (n=12) |
Falls and Balance: Gait speed ↑ TC more than VR*; step length ↑ for TC and VR*; stance duration ↓ VR* more than TC; Step width ↑ VR and TC ns: Mechanical energy expenditure (hip ↓ TC more than VR*; ankle ↑ more for TC than VR*; knee and leg both ns); Peak trunk forward velocity ↑ TC more than VR*; forward velocity range and peak or range of lateral trunk velocity TC and VR ns; Peak trunk angular velocity ↑ more for VR than TC*; and trunk angular velocity in frontal plane and change in peak and range TC and VR ns; Trunk velocity peak and range positively correlated with change in leg mechanical energy expenditure for TC* and VR negative relationship |
| McGibbon Krebs Wolf Wayne Scarborough & Parker 2004 USA | 26 History of Vestibulopath y 56.2 years 11/15 | 10 weeks (70 min × 1 day) | Tai Chi Yang (n=13) | Vestibular Rehabilitation (n=13) |
Falls and Balance: Gaze stability ↑ more for VR than TC*; Whole-body stability and foot fall stability ↑ more for TC than VR*; Correlation between change in gaze stability and whole-body stability, and foot-fall stability and gaze stability for VR not TC*; Correlation between foot-fall stability and whole-body stability for VR and TC* |
| Motivala Sollers Thayer & Irwin 2006 USA | 32 out of 63 who completed RCT for Herpes Zoster risk in aging study 68.5 years 14/18 | 37 week TC (? Min × 1 day) | TCC (n=19) | Passive-Rest and slow moving physical movement (n=19) |
Cardiopulmonary: Pre-ejection period ↑ post task more for TC than PR*; BP and HR TC and PR ns |
| Mustian Katula Gill Roscoe Lang & Murphy 2004 AND Mustian Katula & Zhao 2006 USA | 21 History of breast cancer 52 years 0/21 | 12 week (60 min × 3 days) | Tai Chi Yang and Chi Kung (n=11) | Psychosocial Support (n=10) |
Cardiopulmonary: (2006) 6-minute walk ↑ for TC and ↓ for PS*; aerobic capacity ↑ for TC and ↓ for PS ns Physical Function: (2006) Muscle strength (hand grip ↑ for TC and ↓ for PS*); and flexibility (abduction ↑ TC and PS, flexion, extension, horizontal adduction and abduction ↑ more for TC than PS*; and body fat mass ↓ for TC and ↑ for PS ns QOL: (2004) Health Related Quality Of Life ↑ for TC* and ↓ PS ns Psychological: (2004) Self esteem ↑ for TC and ↓ for PS* |
| Nowalk Prendergast Bayles D’Amico & Colvin 2001 USA | 110 Long term care residents 84 years 7/48 | 13 to 28 months (3 × week) | Tai Chi with behavioral component (n=38) | Physical therapy weight training (n=37) and Education Control (n=35) |
Falls and Balance: Falls No difference between groups |
| Pippa Manzoli Corti Congedo Romanazzi & Parruti 2007 Italy | 43 History of stable chronic atrial fibrillation 68 years 30/13 | 16 week (90 minutes × 2 days) | Qigong (n=22) | Wait-List control (n=21) |
Cardiopulmonary: 6-minute walk ↑ for QG and ↓ for WL*; Ejection fraction, BMI, cholesterol ns |
| Sattin Easley Wolf Chen & Kutner 2005 USA | 217 Transitionally frail with history of 1 or more falls in past year (55 African Americans) 70–97 years 12/205 | 48 weeks (60–90 min × 2 days) | Tai Chi 6 of 24 Simplified (n=158) | Wellness Education (n=153) |
Falls and Balance: Activities Specific Balance ↑ more among TC than WE* Psychological: Falls Efficacy Scale ↓ more among TC than WE* |
| Shen Williams Chyu Paige Stephens Chauncey Prabhu Ferris & Yeh 2007 USA | 28 Sedentary from a senior living facility 79.1 years 7/21 | 24 week (40 min × 3 days) | TC Yang Style Simplified 24 forms (n=14) | Resistance Training (n=14) |
Bone Density: Sedentary older adults on bone metabolism (Serum Bone Specific alkaline phosphatase/Urinary Pyridinoline ↑ more for TC than RT at 6 weeks* and TC returned to baseline and RT less than baseline*; Parathyroid hormone ↑ more for TC than RT at 12 weeks*; serum 1,25-vitamin D3 TC and RT ns; serum calcium ↑ more for TC than RT at 12 weeks compared to 6 weeks*; urinary calcium ↓ for TC* not RT; serum and urinary Pi TC and RT ns |
| Song Lee Lam & Bae 2003 AND Song Lee Lam & Bae 2007 Korea | 72 History of osteoarthritis and no exercise for 1 year prior 63 years 0/72 | 12 week (60 min × 3 days for 2 weeks then × 1 day for 10 weeks) | Tai Chi Sun Style modified for arthritics (n=22) | UC (n=21) |
Cardiopulmonary: (2003) BMI, 13 minute ergometer TC and UC ns Falls and Balance: (2003) OLS, trunk flexion and sit ups ↑ more for TC than UC*; Flexibility and knee strength TC and UC ns Patient Reported Outcomes: (2007) Pain and stiffness ↓ and perceived benefits ↑ more for TC than UC*;TC performed more health behaviors than UC* |
| Stenlund Lindstrom Granlund & Burell 2005 Sweden | 95 History of coronary artery disease 77.5 years 66/29 | 12 weeks (60 min QG and 120 min of discussion on various themes) | Qigong (TC & Medicinsk Qigong) (n=48) | UC (n=47) |
Falls and Balance: Falls Efficacy Scale, tandem standing, OLS Left, Climb boxes Left TC and UC ns; OLS Right and climb boxes right ↑ more for TC than UC*; and co-ordination ↓ more for UC than TC*; and Self reported activity level ↑ for TC more than UC* Psychological: Fear of falling between TC and UC ns |
| Thomas Hong Tomlinson Lau Lam Sanderson & Woot 2005 Hong Kong | 207 Healthy, community dwelling 68.8 years 113/94 | 12 months(60 min × 3 days) | Tai Chi Yang style 24 forms (n=64) | Resistance Training (n=65) or UC (n=78) |
Cardiopulmonary: Energy expenditure ↑ for TC and RT more than UC ns; Waist circumference and HR ↓ more TC and RT than UC ns; Insulin sensitivity ↓ more for RT than UC* and more for TC than UC ns; BMI, body fat, BP, Cholesterol, and glucose TC, RT, and UC ns |
| Tsai Wang Chan Lin Wang Tomlinson Hsieh Yang & Liu 2003 Taiwan | 76 Sedentary with pre- hypertension or Stage I 52 years 38/38 | 12 wk ( 50 min × 3 days) | Tai Chi Yang (n=37) | UC (n=39) |
Cardiopulmonary: BP& total cholesterol ↓ for TC* and ↑ for UC ns; BMI and HR TC and UC ns; Triglyceride ↓ TC* and ↑ UC*; LDL ↓ TC* and ↑ UC ns; High- density lipoprotein ↑ TC* and ↓ UC ns Psychological: Trait and State anxiety ↓ TC* more than UC ns |
| Tsang H.W. Fung Chan Lee & Chan 2006 Hong Kong | 82 history of depression and chronic illness 82.4 years 16/66 | 16 weeks (30–45 min × 3 days) | Qigong Baduanjin (n=48) | Newspaper Reading group with same intensity (n=34) |
QOL: Personal Well Being ↑ for QG and ↓ NR *; and General Health Questionnaire ↓ QG and ↑ NR*; and Self-concept ↓ more TC than NR* Self-efficacy: Chinese General Self-efficacy and Perceived Benefits Questionnaire ↑ more for QG than NR* Psychological: Geriatric Depression Scale ↓ more for QG than NR* |
| Tsang HW Mok Yeung & Chan 2003 Hong Kong | 50 History of chronic disease 74.6 years 26/24 | 12 week (60 min × 2 days) | Qigong Eight- Section Brocades (n=24) | Basic Rehabilitation activities (n=26) |
QOL: Physical health, activities of daily living psychological health and social relationships improved for QG*; Self-concept and WHOQOL-BREF QG and BR ns Psychological: Geriatric Depression Scale ↓ TC and BR ns |
| Tsang T. Orr Lam Comino & Singh 2007 Australia | 38 Sedentary, community dwelling, type 2 diabetics 65.4 years 8/30 | 16 week (45 min × 2 days) | Tai Chi for diabetes (12 movement hybrid from Yang and Sun (n=17) | Sham Exercise (seated calisthenics and stretching) (n=20) |
Physical Function: 6-minute walk, habitual and maximal gait speed, muscle strength and peak power ↑ TC more than SE ns; Endurance ↓ more for SE than TC ns; and Habitual Physical Activity ↑ TC and ↓ SE* Falls and Balance: Balance index ↓ TC and SE ns; OLS open ↑ TC and nc SE ns; OLS closed and tandem walk ↓ TC and SE ns; Falls 0–2 TC and SE ns QOL: SF-36 (except Social Function ↑ for TC and ↓ SE*) and Diabetes Integration Scale TC and SE ns |
| Voukelatos Cumming Lord & Rissel 2007 Australia | 702 Community dwelling 69 years 112/589 | 16 weeks (60 min × 1 day) | Tai Chi 38 Programs mostly Sun-style (83%) Yang (3%) (n=271) | Wait-List (n=256) |
Falls and Balance: Sway on floor and foam mat, lateral stability, coordinated stability, and choice stepping reaction time improved TC more than WL*; Maximal leaning balance range ↑ TC more than WL ns; Fall rates less for TC (n=347) than WL (n=337)* |
| Wang Roubenoff Lau Kalish Schmid Tighiouart Rones & Hibberd 2005 USA | 20 Community dwelling with Rheumatoid Arthritic class I or II 49.5 years 5/15 | 12 week (60 min × 2 days) | Tai Chi Yang Style (n=10) | Stretching and Wellness Education (n=10) |
Physical Function: Chair stand and 50-ft walk ↑ TC and WE ns; American College of Rheumatology 20 ↓ TC more than WE*; hand grip not reported; Health Assessment Questionnaire ↑ more TC than WE*; Erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-Reactive protein ns QOL: SF-36 ↑ more TC than WE with only vitality* Patient Reported Outcomes: Pain ↓ TC and ↑ WE ns Psychological: Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale ↑ more TC than WE* Immune/Inflammation: ESR and C-Reactive protein ns (note TC higher level at baseline) |
| Wennenberg Gunnarsson & Ahlstrom 2004 Sweden | 36 History of Muscular Dystrophy 33–80 years 19/17 | 12wk (Weekend immersion, then 45–50 min × 1 day for 4 weeks, then every other week for 8 weeks) | Qigong (n=16) | Wait-List control (n=15) |
Cardiopulmonary: Forced vital capacity and expiratory volume ↓ QG and WL ns Falls and Balance: BBS unchanged for QG and ↓ WL ns for intervention period; subgroup A QOL: SF-36 general health unchanged for QG and ↓ WL* and other dimensions ns; Ways of Coping: positive reappraisal coping ↓ for QG and unchanged for WL*, Confrontative coping ↑ QG and ↓ WL ns, and other dimensions ns Psychological: Montgomery Asberg Depression Rating Scale QG and WL ns |
| Winsmann 2006 USA | 47 Veterans 49.55 years 47/0 | 4 weeks (75 min × 2 days) | Tai Chi Chuan Yang Style (n=23) | UC included group therapy (n=24) |
Patient Reported Outcomes: Dissociative Experiences and Symptom Checklist 90 ↓ TC more than UC ns |
| Wolf O’Grady Easley Guo Kressig & Kutner 2006 USA | 311 Transitionally frail with average of 5.6 comorbidities 80.9 years 20/291 | 48 weeks (60–90 min × 2 days) | Tai chi 6 of 24 simplified forms (n=158) | Wellness Education (n=153) |
Cardiopulmonary: BMI ↓ TC and ↑ WE*; SBP and HR ↓ TC and ↑ WE*; DBP ↓ TC more than WE* Physical Function: Gait Speed and FR ↑ TC and WE ns; Chair stands ↓ 12.3% TC and ↑ 13.7% WE*; 360° turn and pick up object similar change TC and WE ns; and OLS nc |
| Wolf Sattin Kutner O’Grady Greenspan & Gregor 2003b USA | 311 Transitionally frail with average of 5.6 comorbidities 80.9 years 20/291 | 48 weeks (60–90 min × 2 days) | Tai chi 6 of 24 simplified forms (n=145) | Wellness Education (n=141) |
Falls and Balance: TC lower risk for falls from month 4 to 12; RR falls TC and WE 0.75 (CI=0.52–1.08) ns |
| Wolf Barnhart Ellison Coogler & Gorak 1997a USA | 72 Sedentary 77.7 years 12/60 | 15 weeks (60 min × 2days TC group) | Tai Chi 108 forms simplified to 10 forms (n=19) | Balance Training (n=16) and Education Control (n=19) |
Falls and Balance: Balance: Dispersion for OLS (eyes open), toes up (eyes open and closed), Center of Balance X with toes up (eyes open) and Center of Balance Y (OLS eyes open and closed) ↓ more BT than ED and TC*; Dispersion for toes up (eyes open), Center of Balance X OLS (eyes open and closed) and Toes up (eyes closed), and Center of Balance Y for toes up (eyes open and closed) TC, BT, and ED ns; Psychological: Fear of falling ↓ more for TC than BT and ED* |
| Wolf Barnhart Kutner McNeelly Coogler & Xu 2003a USA | 200 Community dwellling 76.2 years 58/242 | 15 weeks (45 minutes weekly in class plus 15 min 2 × daily) | Tai Chi (n=72) | Balance Training (n=64) and Education Control (n=64) |
Cardiopulmonary: BP↓ more for TC than BT and ED*; 12-minute walk ↑ 0.01 mile for BT and ED and ↓ 0.02 for TC*; Body composition changes for TC, BT and ED ns Physical Function: Left hand grip strength ↓ more in BT and ED than TC*; Strength of hip, knee and ankle via Nicholas MMT 0116 muscle tester, lower extremity ROM changes TC, BT and ED ns Falls and Balance: Intrusiveness↓ more for TC than ED ns; RR for falls in TC 0.632 (CI 0.45– 0.89)* using FICSIT fall definition and for BT and other fall definitions ns Psychological: Fear of falling ↓ more for TC than BT and ED* |
| Woo Hong Lau & Lynn 2007 China | 180 Community dwelling 68.91 years 90/90 | 12 months (?min × 3 days) | Tai Chi Yang style 24 forms (n=30) | Resistance Training (n=29) and UC (n=29) |
Falls and Balance: Muscle strength (grip strength and quadriceps) ns; Balance (SMART Balance Master, stance time, gait velocity, and bend reach); and falls for TC, RT and UC ns Bone Density: Women: BMD loss at hip less for TC and RT than UC*; BMD loss at spine less for TC and RT than UC ns; Men: no difference in % change in BMD |
| Yang Verkuilen Rosengren Grubisich Reed & Hsiao- Wecksler 2007a USA | 49 Healthy adults 80.4 years 10/39 | 6 months (60 min × 3 days) | Qigong (sitting and standing) and Taiji Chen style Essential 48 form (n=33) | Wait-List (n=16) |
Falls and Balance: Sensory Organization Test vestibular ratios and Base of Support measures ↑ more for TC than WL*↑; Sensory Organization Test visual ratios and feet opening angle for TC and WL nc |
| Yang Verkuilen Rosengren Mariani Reed Grubisich & Woods 2007b USA | 50 History of received flu immunization and sedentary 77.2 years 13/37 | 20 weeks (60 min × 3 days) | Qigong (sitting and standing) and Taiji Chen style Essential 48 form (n=27) | Wait-List (n=23) |
Immune/Inflammation: Hemagglutination Inhibition assay ↑ 109% for QG compared to ~10% for WL* |
| Yeh Wood Lorell Stevenson Eisenberg Wayne et al. 2004 USA | 30 History chronic stable heart failure 64 years 19/11 | 12 weeks (60 min × 2 days) | Tai chi Yang-style 5 core movements (n=15) | UC including pharmacologi c therapy, dietary and exercise counseling (n=15) |
Cardiopulmonary: Peak O2 uptake↑ TC and ↓ UC ns; 6-minute walk ↑ TC and ↓ UC*; Serum B-type natriuretic peptide ↓ TC and ↑ UC*; Plasma norepinephrine ↑ TC more than UC ns; and no differences in incidence of arrhythmia between groups QOL: Minnesota Living with Heart Failure ↓ TC and ↑UC* |
| Young Appel Jee & Miller 1999 USA | 62 History of BP between 130 and 159 and not taking medications for hypertension or insulin (45.2% black) 66.7 years 13/49 | 12 weeks (60 min × 2 days class with goal of 30–45 min/4–5 days/week) | TC Yang Style 13 movements (n=31) | Aerobic Exercise class at 40 to 60% HR reserve (n=31) |
Cardiopulmonary: BP↓ TC and AE *; BMI ↑ slightly TC and AE ns; and time in moderate activity, weekly energy expenditure, and leisurely walking ↑ for AE more than TC ns |
| Zhang Ishikawa- Takata Yamazaki Morita & Ohta 2006 China | 47 History of poor balance 70.4 years 25/22 | 8 weeks (60 min × 7 days) | TC simplified 24 forms Zhou (n=24) | UC (n=23) |
Falls and Balance: OLS, trunk and flexion more TC than UC*; 10 minute walk ↓ TC and UC ns Psychological Symptoms: Falls Efficacy Scale ↑ more TC than UC* |
†
BBS, Berg Balance Scale; BMD, Bone Marrow Density; FR, Functional Reach; nc, no change in scores; ns, scores not significantly different between groups; OLS, One leg stance; SR, Sit and Reach; TUG, Timed Up & Go; WOMAC, Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index; ↑, increase in score; ↓, decrease in score.
*
p < .05 between groups