Table A1.

Descriptions of Variables Used to Make Propensity Scores

Variable	Description
Gender	1 = female (54 percent), 0 = male.
Immigrant generation	Dummy variables, based on self-report, for first generation (foreign-born, 16 percent), second generation (U.S.-born with at least one foreign-born parent, 17 percent), third generation (U.S.-born with U.S.-born parents, 66 percent).
Measured ability	Scores, in percentiles, on an abridged version of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (M = 37.75, SD = 26.12).
Diagnosed learning disability	1 = parent reported that student had been diagnosed with a learning disability (e.g., dyslexia) by a professional (11 percent), 0 = no such diagnosis.
Athletic participation	1 = student reported participation in at least one school sport program (32 percent), 0 = no such participation.
Extracurricular activity participation	1 = student reported membership in at least one school extracurricular activity (36 percent), 0 = no such participation.
Students’ educational aspirations	Students reported, on a scale of 1 to 5, how much they wanted to go to college (M = 4.21, SD = 1.21).
Prior negative self-image	Wave I version of negative self-image (see Main Study Variables section) (M = 1.94, SD = .80).
Prior perceived social rejection	Wave I version of perceived social rejection (see Main Study Variables section) (M = 1.96, SD = .81).
Prior depression	Wave I version of depression (see Main Study Variables section) (M = 8.44, SD = 6.48).
Math course level (9th grade)	9th grade version of final math coursework level (see Main Study Variables section) (M = 2.15, SD = 1.32).
Science course level (9th grade)	9th grade version of final science coursework level (see Main Study Variables section) (M = .97, SD = .79).
Overall grade point average (9th grade)	9th grade version of final GPA (see Main Study Variables section) (M = 2.27, SD = .91).
Parent education	See Main Study Variables section.
Family income	See Main Study Variables section (except continuous measure used).
Family structure	Dummy variables, based on parent and adolescent reported household rosters, for two biological parent (40 percent), single parent (35 percent), stepfamily (17 percent), and other (7 percent).
Parents’ educational aspirations	Parents reported, on a scale of 1 to 3, how disappointed they would be if student did not go to college (M = 2.31, SD = .75).
Parental involvement in education	Students reported whether, in the past month, their mothers had talked with them about grades or school or worked with them on a school project. These items were summed, and then the same procedure was followed for fathers. The final construct is the mean of the maternal and paternal constructs (α = .88) if information is not missing for both parents; otherwise, the score for the non-missing parent serves as the value (M = 1.24, SD = .89).
Parent-adolescent closeness	Student assessments of the degree to which they felt close to their fathers, felt that their fathers were warm, felt that they communicated well with their fathers, and were satisfied with their relationships with fathers (responses range from 1 to 5). These responses were averaged and the same procedure was followed for mothers. The final construct is the mean of the maternal and paternal constructs (α = .88) if information is not missing for both parents; otherwise, the score for the non-missing parent serves as the value (M = 4.21, SD = .68).
Home language use	1 = adolescent reported that language other than English was primary language spoken at home (23 percent), 0 = English was primary language.
Chose community for schools	At Wave I, parents reported that good schools were the reason they lived in their current neighborhood (47 percent).
Friends’ academic achievement	Mean GPA (0 to 4) of all friends nominated by the respondent in the In-School Survey. Over a third of the sample is missing on this measure for a variety of reasons. Wave I values were imputed when available, otherwise the sample mean was imputed with a binary marker of missingness/imputation used as a covariate (M = 2.68, SD = .42).

Note: All variables measured at Wave I (which could correspond to 9th, 10th, or 11th grade). The transcript measures were measured at 9th grade, which could have been the same time as Wave I or one to two years prior to Wave I.