Table 1.
Known modulatory effects of cytokines, chemokines and growth factors on autophagy
| Cytokine/chemokine/growth factor | Effect on autophagy | References |
|---|---|---|
| IFN-γ | Induces autophagy in human and murine macrophages: dependent on Irgm1 (IRGM) | [20,97] |
| TNF-α | Induces autophagosome formation in human and murine macrophages | [12] |
| TGF-β | Induces autophagy in human hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines | [98] |
| IL-1α | Induces autophagy in porcine articular chondocytes and human macrophages | [99,100] |
| IL-1β | Induces autophagosome formation in human macrophages | [100] |
| IL-2 | Induces autophagy in primary murine CD4+ T cells | [101] |
| IL-3 | Withdrawal from IL-3-dependent Bax−/− Bak−/− bone marrow-derived cells induces autophagosome formation | [102] |
| IL-4 | Inhibits starvation-induced autophagy via activation of the Akt pathway | [24] |
| IL-6 | Induces hyperactivation of autophagy in human CD11b+ peripheral blood mononuclear cells | [103] |
| IL-10 | Inhibits rapamycin-induced autophagy via activation of the STAT3 and Akt pathways Inhibits starvation-induced autophagy via type I PI3K/Akt pathway | [25,26] |
| IL-13 | Inhibits starvation-induced autophagy via activation of the Akt pathway and IFN-γ-induced autophagy via STAT6 activation | [24] |
| IGF1 | Inhibits autophagosome formation in HEK293, HeLa, MCF7 and H4 LC3-GFP cells | [104] |
| FGF2 | Inhibits autophagosome formation in HEK293, HeLa, MCF7 and H4 LC3-GFP cells | [104] |
| LIF | Inhibits autophagosome formation in HEK293, HeLa, MCF7 and H4 LC3-GFP cells | [104] |
| MCP-1 | Induces oxidative stress in cardiac myoblasts, which induces ER stress, autophagy and cell death | [105] |
| CCL2 | Induces hyperactivation of autophagy in human CD11b+ peripheral blood mononuclear cells | [103] |
| CLCF1 | Inhibits autophagosome formation in HEK293, HeLa, MCF7 and H4 LC3-GFP cells | [104] |
| SDF1 (CXCL12) | Inhibits autophagosome formation in HEK293, HeLa, MCF7 and H4 LC3-GFP cells | [104] |
IGF1: insulin-like growth factor 1; IFN: interferon; FGF2: fibroblast growth factor 2; LIF: leukaemia inhibitory factor; MCP-1: monocyte chemotactic protein-1; CCL2: chemokines (C-C motif) ligand 2; CLCF1: cardiotrophin-like cytokine factor 1; SDF1: stromal cell-derived factor 1; GFP: green fluorescent protein; IGRM: immunity-related GTPase M; AKT: protein kinase B; STAT: signal transducer and activator of transcription; ER: endoplasmic reticulum.