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Divalent cation-responsive water flux through PVDF-PAA membrane. (A) Water flux as a function of cumulative divalent cation (Fe2+ and Ca2+) loading. (B) Cumulative divalent cation capture with time. Feed contains 0.50 mmol/L Fe2+ and 0.50 mmol/L Ca2+; permeated at 1.4 bar; feed pH 5.0; permeate pH 4.4; external membrane area = 13.2 cm2; (mol Na+ + H+ released)/(mol Fe2+ + Ca2+ captured) = 2.1 ± 0.5.
