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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2011 Jun 7.
Published in final edited form as: Trop Med Int Health. 2009 Oct;14(10):1258–1265. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2009.02370.x

Table 2.

Bivariate analysis of association between malaria risk (cases/controls) and various demographic, social and environmental variables in Kipsamoite and Kapsisiywa, Kenya, March–September 2004

Potential risk factors No. cases
(n = 488)
No. controls
(n = 980)
Crude odds ratio
(95% CI)
P
Socio-demographics
Female Household Head Education
 None 78 (16) 155 (16) 1.85 (1.09, 3.13) 0.02
 Primary/some secondary 386 (79) 737 (75) 1.92 (1.20, 3.07) 0.006
 Completed Secondary + 22 (5) 84 (9)  1
Household Wealth Index
 First quartile (poorest) 123 (25) 244(25) 0.85 (0.62, 1.16) 0.31
 Second quartile 146 (26) 253 (30) 0.95 (0.70, 1.30) 0.75
 Third quartile 115 (24) 240 (24) 1.14 (0.85, 1.54) 0.37
 Fourth quartile 104 (21) 243 (25)  1
People sleeping in room
 <3 168(35) 309 (31)  1
 3–5 271 (45) 571 (48) 0.87 (0.69, 1.11) 0.26
 >5 49 (20) 100 (20) 0.90 (0.61, 1.31) 0.60
Prevention activities
Malaria prophylaxis 4 (1) 10 (1) 0.82 (0.25, 2.56) 0.71
Mosquito coils 10 (2) 28 (3) 0.71 (0.34, 1.48) 0.36
Bednet use 15 (3) 37 (4) 0.81 (0.44, 1.49) 0.49
Clearing of bushes 167 (34) 398 (38) 0.84 (0.64, 1.09) 0.17
Burning herbs at night 55 (11) 95 (9) 1.12 (0.63, 1.99) 0.69
Travel/residential history
Overnight travel 7–21 days prior 21 (4) 20 (2) 2.16 (1.16, 4.02) 0.02
Immigrated from outside study 22 (5) 36 (4) 1.24 (0.72, 2.13) 0.44
Agricultural and animal husbandry activities
Channelled swamp water 50 (10) 44 (4) 2.43 (1.59, 3.70) <0.001
Animals sleeping in compound
Insecticide treated cattle 254 (52) 509 (52) 1.00 (0.81, 1.25) 0.97
Insecticide free cattle 84 (17) 131 (13) 1.35 (1.00, 1.82) 0.05
Goats 43 (9) 48 (5) 1.88 (1.23, 2.88) 0.003
Dogs 252 (52) 435 (44) 1.34 (1.08, 1.66) 0.01
House construction
Metal roof 284 (58) 483 (49) 1.43 (1.15, 1.78) 0.001
Mud walls 430 (88) 867 (88) 0.97 (0.69, 1.35) 0.84
Absence of ceiling 409 (84) 771 (79) 1.40 (1.05, 1.87) 0.02
Open eaves 387 (79) 795 (81) 0.89 (0.68, 1.17) 0.41
Uncovered windows 52 (11) 119 (12) 1.06 (0.74, 1.51) 0.76
Separate kitchen 129 (74) 356 (64) 1.59 (1.25, 2.02) 0.001
Surrounding environment
Livestock holding area <100 m 206 (42) 374 (38) 1.18 (0.95,1.48) 0.14
House on flat land 121 (25) 179 (18) 1.47 (1.13, 1.91) 0.004
Location at bottom of hill 52 (11) 85 (9) 1.26 (0.87, 1.81) 0.22
Elevation (quartiles)
 < 1932 m 110(23) 260 (27) 0.95 (0.69, 1.30) 0.74
 1932–1947 m 114 (23) 247 (25) 1.03 (0.76, 1.41) 0.84
 1947–1983 m 151 (31) 220 (22) 1.53 (1.13, 2.08) 0.06
 > 1983 m 113 (23) 253 (26)  1
Distance from forest
 < 250 m 33 (7) 40 (4) 1.77 (1.10, 2.85) 0.02
 250–500 m 37 (8) 50 (5) 1.58 (1.02, 2.47) 0.04
 500–1000 m 55 (11) 113 (12) 1.02 (0.71, 1.45) 0.82
 > 1000 m 363 (74) 777 (79)  1
Distance from swamp
 < 250 m 166 (34) 263 (27) 1.36 (0.94, 1.98) 0.10
 250–500 m 198 (41) 421 (43) 1.02 (0.71, 1.45) 0.93
 500–1000 m 68 (14) 175 (18) 0.84 (0.55, 1.28) 0.42
 > 1000 m 56 (11) 121 (12)  1
Distance from clinics (quartiles)
 1190 m 115 (23) 253 (26) 0.78 (0.57, 1.06) 0.11
 1190–2081 m 125 (26) 241 (24) 0.89 (0.66, 1.20) 0.44
 2081–2711 m 112 (23) 253 (26) 0.76 (0.56, 1.03) 0.08
 >2711 m 136 (28) 233 (24)  1
Distance from Stream
 < 250 m 97 (19) 186 (20) 1.19 (0.92, 1.53) 0.19
 250–500 m 83 (17) 113 (12) 1.79 (1.23, 2.59) 0.002
 500–1000 m 6 (1) 12 (1) 1.11 (0.41, 2.97) 0.84
 > 1000 m 302 (62) 669 (68)  1
Absence of trees within 200 m 394 (81) 703 (72) 1.65 (1.27, 2.15) 0.0002
Presence of bushes within 200 m 124 (25) 194 (20) 1.38 (1.07, 1.79) 0.01
Presence of tea within 200 m 243 (50) 522 (53) 0.87 (0.70, 1.08) 0.21
Presence of maize within 200 m 445 (91) 887 (90) 1.09 (0.74, 1.59) 0.67