Table 3.
Characteristics of the Singapore Prospective Study (SP2) (N = 3000) by coffee consumption categories.
| Characteristic | Total | Never or <1 cup/week | <1cup/week to <1 cup/day | 1-2 cups/day | ≥3 cups/day | P value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n = 891 | n = 358 | n = 1509 | n = 242 | |||
| Age (y) | 47.5 ± 11.2 | 45.3 ± 11.5 | 45.9 ± 11.4 | 49.0 ± 10.9 | 48.5 ± 10.1 | <0.001 |
| Gender | ||||||
| Male | 1348 (44.9) | 327 (36.7) | 159 (44.4) | 689 (45.7) | 173 (71.5) | |
| Female | 1652 (55.1) | 564 (63.3) | 199 (55.6) | 820 (54.3) | 69 (28.5) | <0.001 |
| Ethnicity | ||||||
| Chinese | 2058 (68.6) | 575 (64.5) | 254 (70.9) | 1063 (70.4) | 166 (68.6) | |
| Malay | 531 (17.7) | 183 (20.5) | 62 (17.3) | 243 (16.1) | 43 (17.8) | |
| Indian | 411 (13.7) | 133 (14.9) | 42 (11.7) | 203 (13.5) | 33 (13.6) | 0.074 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 23.6 ± 4.3 | 23.4 ± 4.3 | 23.4 ± 4.6 | 23.7 ± 4.4 | 23.9 ± 3.9 | 0.159 |
| Education | ||||||
| Primary school and below | 705 (23.5) | 163 (18.3) | 75 (20.9) | 395 (26.2) | 72 (29.8) | |
| Secondary school | 1295 (43.2) | 378 (42.4) | 131 (36.6) | 681 (45.1) | 105 (43.4) | |
| Polytechnic and diploma | 518 (17.3) | 189 (21.2) | 67 (18.7) | 225 (14.9) | 37 (15.3) | |
| University | 482 (16.1) | 161 (18.1) | 85 (23.7) | 208 (13.8) | 28 (11.6) | <0.001 |
| Physical Activity (kcal/week) | 523.1 (268.9-952.7) | 522.3 (251.5-987.2) | 481.0 (268.0-826.4) | 530.8 (277.0-937.2) | 550.5 (273.3-1108.2) | 0.141 |
| Energy intake (kcal) | 1829.8 (1443.9-2336.6) | 1788.1 (1386.2-2278.7) | 1763.8 (1387.4-2324.7) | 1824.6 (1465.2-2304.1) | 2132.6 (1666.6-2647.2) | <0.001 |
| Fiber intake (g/1000 kcal) | 10.5 (9.1-12.3) | 10.9 (9.3-12.8) | 10.6 (9.3-12.4) | 10.5 (9.1-12.2) | 9.1 (7.9-10.8) | <0.001 |
| Cholesterol intake (mg/1000 kcal) | 115.4 (90.2-141.7) | 115.2 (88.8-142.7) | 110.9 (88.1-140.6) | 116.2 (91.0-140.3) | 119.6 (93.0-149.3) | 0.171 |
| PUFA intake (% of energy) | 5.3 (4.2-7.2) | 5.5 (4.2-7.6) | 5.3 (4.2-7.1) | 5.3 (4.2-7.2) | 4.8 (3.9-6.4) | 0.001 |
| MUFA intake (% of energy) | 9.7 ± 2.6 | 9.8 ± 2.7 | 9.8 ± 2.5 | 9.6 ± 2.6 | 9.5 ± 2.5 | 0.001 |
| SFA intake (% of energy) | 11.1 ± 2.8 | 11.1 ± 3.0 | 10.9 ± 2.6 | 11.1 ± 2.8 | 11.6 ± 2.8 | <0.001 |
| Cigarette Smoking | ||||||
| Never smoker | 2393 (79.8) | 782 (87.8) | 298 (83.2) | 1184 (78.5) | 129 (53.3) | |
| Past smoker | 240 (8.0) | 47 (5.3) | 24 (6.7) | 139 (9.2) | 30 (12.4) | |
| Current (<10 cigarettes/day) | 115 (3.8) | 26 (2.9) | 15 (4.2) | 62 (4.1) | 12 (5.0) | |
| Current (≥10 cigarettes/day) | 252 (8.4) | 36 (4.0) | 21 (5.9) | 124 (8.2) | 71 (29.3) | <0.001 |
| Alcohol Consumption | ||||||
| non-drinker | 2457 (81.9) | 755 (84.7) | 289 (80.7) | 1227 (81.3) | 186 (76.9) | |
| <1 serving/day | 479 (16.0) | 128 (14.4) | 62 (17.3) | 241 (16) | 48 (19.8) | |
| ≥1 serving/day | 64 (2.1) | 8 (0.9) | 7 (2.0) | 41 (2.7) | 8 (3.3) | 0.012 |
Abbreviations: PUFA - polyunsaturated fatty acids, MUFA - monounsaturated fatty acids, SAF - saturated fatty acids
Values are mean ± SD for continuous variables and n (%) for categorical variables.
The Kruskal-Wallis test (for non-normally distributed continuous variables), analysis of covariance (for normally distributed continuous variables) or the chi-squared test (for categorical variables) was used to compare participant characteristics across coffee consumption categories.