Table 1. Agents.

Agent	Molecular Targets	Effects/Mechanism	Potential Detrimental Effects
VEGF	VEGF receptors on endothelial cells,  monocytes, and HSCs	Stimulates proliferation, migration, and  tube formation	Tumorigenesis Retinopathy
		Mobilizes EPCs; improves EPC survival  and differentiation	Flushing (protein infusion) Hypotension (protein infusion)
PlGF	VEGF receptor 1	Cross-talk with VEGF receptor 2 Mobilizes EPCs and HSCs	Associated with carotid atherosclerotic plaque  destabilization and adverse outcomes  in ACS
			Associated with depressed LV function in  ischemic cardiomyopathy (exact role  undefined)
FGF	FGF receptors on endothelial cells,  smooth muscle cells, and myoblasts	Stimulates proliferation	Membranous nephropathy Dose-related hypotension Coronary plaque destabilization Accelerated atherosclerosis
GCSF	GCSF receptors on hematopoietic and  nonhematopoietic cells	Inhibits apoptosis Activates the JAK-STAT pathway Synergistic with SDF-1 Mobilizes HSCs and granulocytes Accelerates wound healing post-MI Possible effects on resident cardiac  stem cells	Tumorigenesis Dysregulated inflammation leading to  impaired wound healing or plaque  destabilization Medullary bone pain
GMCSF	GMCSF receptors on granulocyte and  monocyte precursor cells and  monocytes	Stimulates arteriogenesis Activates monocytic cells Mobilizes EPCs and HSCs	Infarct expansion through alteration of  inflammation (i.e., dendritic cell function) Plaque destabilization/acute MI “First-dose reaction”: dyspnea, hypotension,  hypoxia, tachycardia, or syncope Bone pain Peripheral edema, pericardial effusion
SCF	c-kit	Synergistic with colony-stimulating  factors Mobilizes bone marrow precursor cells	Mast cell degranulation/wheal formation  at injection site Hyperpigmentation Allergic-like reaction including respiratory  distress
Angiopoietin-1	TIE2 receptors on endothelial cells	Enhances vessel maturation and  stability Mobilizes EPCs and HPCs	Enhanced renal inflammation and fibrosis Pulmonary hypertension Adverse vascular remodeling or angiogenesis
HGF	c-Met receptor on numerous cells (e.g.,  endothelial cells, cardiac myocytes, progenitor cells)	Attracts resident cardiac stem cells	Tumorigenesis Retinopathy
GH/IGF-1	IGF receptor on vascular and satellite cells, cardiac stem cells	Enhances skeletal and cardiac muscle regeneration	Retinopathy Diarrhea Hypotension Hypoglycemia
Erythropoietin	Erythropoietin receptor on HSCs, EPCs,  endothelial cells, and cardiac myocytes	Promotes cell survival Mobilizes EPCs	May accelerate death in patients with cancer Hypertension, headache, arthralgias, and  nausea MI (rare)

ACS = acute coronary syndrome; EPC = endothelial progenitor cell; FGF = fibroblast growth factor; GCSF = granulocyte colony-stimulating factor; GH = growth hormone; GMCSF = granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; HGF = hepatocyte growth factor; HPC = hematopoietic progenitor cell; HSC = hematopoietic stem cell; IGF = insulin-like growth factor; JAK = Janus kinase; LV = left ventricular; MI = myocardial infarction; PlGF = placental growth factor; SCF = stem cell factor; SDF = stromal cell-derived factor; STAT = signal transducers and activators of transcription; TIE2 = Tyrosine kinase with Ig-like loops and Epidermal growth factor homology domains-2; VEGF = vascular endothelial growth factor.