Table 1.
Genes implicated in the origin or maintenance of insect society by molecular evolutionary research
| Gene | Function | Evidence | Type of change* | ||
| Chemical signaling | |||||
| decapentaplegic | Gland development (22, 23) | Rapid evolution in eusocial bees (21) | 1 | ||
| thickveins | Gland development (22, 23) | Rapid evolution in eusocial bees (21) | 1 | ||
| PDGF- and VEGF-related factor 1 | Gland development (22, 23) | Rapid evolution in eusocial bees (21) | 1 | ||
| AmOr11 | OR (24) | Responds to main component of queen honey bee pheromone, 9-ODA (24) | 2 | ||
| Neofem 2 | β-Glycosidase–like (25, 26) | Involved in signaling queen termite presence (25, 26) | 3 | ||
| GP-9 | Putative OBP (27–31) | Allelic variation associated with fire ant queen number (27–31) | 1, 2 | ||
| Brain development and function | |||||
| dunce | cAMP/CREB signaling pathways (32) | Rapid evolution in primitively eusocial bees (21) | 1 | ||
| nejire | CREB binding protein (32) | Rapid evolution in primitively eusocial bees (21) | 1 | ||
| Immunity | |||||
| defensin | Antimicrobial protein (33) | Positive selection in ants (33) | 1 | ||
| termicin | Antimicrobial protein (34, 35) | Gene duplication, positive selection in termites (34, 35) | 1, 2 | ||
| GNBP 1 and 2 | Pattern recognition receptors (36) | Gene duplication, positive selection in termites (36) | 1, 2 | ||
| relish | Transcription factor, induces production of antimicrobial peptides (36) | Positive selection in termites (36) | 1 | ||
| Reproduction | |||||
| tudor | piRNA pathway (37) | Rapid evolution in primitively eusocial bees (21) | 1 | ||
| capsuleen | piRNA pathway (37) | Rapid evolution in primitively eusocial bees (21) | 1 | ||
| vasa | piRNA pathway (37) | Rapid evolution in primitively eusocial bees (21) | 1 | ||
| csd | Sex determination (38–40) | Gene duplication, positive selection in honey bees (38–40) | 1, 2 | ||
| Metabolism and nutrition | |||||
| MRJPs | Main components of royal jelly (41) | Gene family expansion, novel feeding-related functions in honey bees (41) | 2 | ||
| Hex-1 and Hex-2 | Storage proteins (42, 43) | Unique insertions in termites (42, 43) | 1 | ||
| phosphofructokinase | Key regulator of glycolysis (44) | Rapid evolution in eusocial bees (21) | 1 | ||
| hexokinase | Regulator of glycolytic flux (44) | Rapid evolution in eusocial bees (21) | 1 | ||
| pyruvate kinase | Regulator of glycolytic flux (44) | Rapid evolution in eusocial bees (21) | 1 | ||
Although many genes in this table are presumably involved in multiple biological processes, they are classified in one of five processes with known links to insect sociality: chemical signaling, brain development and function, immunity, reproduction, and metabolism and nutrition.
*Type of change: 1, protein coding sequence change; 2, novel gene; 3, change unknown.