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Ionic actuator performance results. (a) Optical image of the bending actuation of the IPCNC developed in this paper under 4 volts. From the radius of curvature R, strain in the CNC layer of 8.2% is determined (see equation (1)). (b) Normalized strain versus time under a step voltage of 4 volts with fitting to an exponential function to determine the time constant τ. (c) Actuator strain versus time under an AC square-wave applied voltage.
