TABLE 1.
Studies Included in Meta-Analyses of Relation Between Social Factors and Adult All-Cause Mortality in the United States in 2000
| References | Social Factorsa | Sources of Data | Sampleb | Yearsc |
| Anderson et al.17 | Poverty, aged 25–64 and ≥ 65 y; area-level poverty | National Longitudinal Mortality Study and Census data | 233 600 White and Black men and women who could be linked to census tract; number of areas not reported | 1979–1989 |
| Backlund et al.18 | Low education, aged 25–64 y | National Longitudinal Mortality Study | 415 224 men and women aged 25–64 y with complete information for all covariates of interest | 1979–1989 |
| Bassuk et al.35 | Low education, aged ≥ 65 y; poverty, aged ≥ 65 y | EPESE | 14 456 men and women aged ≥ 65 y from East Boston, MA; rural Iowa; New Haven, CT; and Piedmont, NC | 1982–1995 |
| Batty et al.36 | Low education, aged 25–64 y; poverty, aged 25–64 y | Vietnam Experience Study | 4 316 men aged 30–49 y who entered military service in the 1960s and 1970s and who participated in a telephone interview in 1985 and a medical examination in 1986 | 1985–2000 |
| Beebe-Dimmer et al.37 | Low education, aged 25–64 y; poverty, aged 25–64 y | Alameda County Study | 3 087 women aged 17–94 y with complete information on socioeconomic position at baseline | 1965–1996 |
| Blazer38 | Low social support, aged ≥ 65 y | Community-based elderly living in Durham County, NC | 331 men and women aged 65 y or older who were included in 30-mo follow-up study | 1972–1975 |
| Bucher and Ragland39 | Low education, aged 25–64 y; poverty, aged 25–64 y | Western Collaborative Group Study | 3 154 White men aged 39–59 y who were free from coronary heart disease or other obvious health problems at baseline | 1961–1983 |
| Cerhan and Wallace40 | Low social support, aged ≥ 65 y | Iowa 65+ Rural Health Study (part of EPESE) | 2 575 men and women aged ≥ 65 y living in Iowa and Washington counties, IA who were interviewed in person at both baseline and follow-up | 1981–1993 |
| Cooper et al.41 | Area-level poverty; income inequality; racial segregation | NCHS and US Census data | White and Black men and women aged < 65 y in metropolitan areas with complete information for all covariates of interest; number of areas: 267 metropolitan areas | 1989–1991 |
| Daly et al.42 | Income inequality | Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) and census data | Men and women aged ≥ 25 y who participated in PSID in 1988; number of areas: 50 states | 1988–1992 |
| Eng et al.21 | Low social support, aged 25–64 y | Health Professionals Follow-Up Study | 28 369 male health professionals aged 40–75 y who did not have preexisting disease prior to 1988 and who provided social network data | 1986–1998 |
| Feinglass et al.43 | Low education, aged 25–64 y; poverty, aged 25–64 y | Health and Retirement Study | 9 759 men and women aged 51–61 y living in the contiguous United States | 1992–2002 |
| Feldman et al.44 | Low education, aged ≥ 65 y | NHANES I, NHEFS | 1 395 White men aged 65–74 y with complete information for all covariates of interest | 1971–1984 |
| Fiscella and Franks45 | Poverty, aged 25–64 y | NHANES I, NHEFS | 6 582 White and Black men and women aged 25–74 y with complete information on psychological distress | 1971–1987 |
| Fiscella and Franks27 | Income inequality | NHANES I, NHEFS | 13 280 men and women aged 25–74 y with complete information for all covariates of interest; number of areas: 105 counties or combined county areas | 1971–1987 |
| Franks et al.46 | Low education, aged 25–64 y | NHANES I, NHEFS | 4 882 White and Black men and women aged 25–74 y with information on health insurance status and who did not have publicly funded health insurance | 1971–1987 |
| Greenfield et al.47 | Low social support, aged 25–64 y | National Alcohol Survey | 5 093 men and women aged ≥ 18 y with information on alcohol consumption and depression | 1984–1995 |
| Haan et al. 48 | Area-level povertyd | Alameda County Study | 1 811 men and women aged ≥ 35 y who were residents of Oakland, California in 1965; number of areas not applicable | 1965–1974 |
| Hahn et al. 30 | Poverty, aged ≥ 65 y | NHANES I, NHEFS | White and Black men aged ≥ 65 y with complete information on all covariates of interest | 1971–1984 |
| Kawachi and Kennedy49 | Income inequality | Compressed Mortality Files and Census data | Total population of the US in 1990; number of areas: 50 states | 1990 |
| Kennedy et al.50 | Income inequality | Compressed Mortality Files and Census data | Total population of the US in 1990; number of areas: 50 states | 1990 |
| Krieger et al.51 | Area-level poverty; income inequality | Public Health Disparities Geocoding Project | Men aged < 65 y residing in Massachusetts or Rhode Island; number of areas: 1 566 census tracts | 1989–1991 |
| Lantz et al.52 | Low education, aged 25–64 y; poverty, aged 25–64 y | Americans' Changing Lives | 1 358 men aged ≥ 25 y in the contiguous United States | 1986–1994 |
| Liu et al.53 | ||||
| (1) | Low education, aged 25–64 y | Chicago Heart Association Detection Project | 8 047 White men aged 40–59 y who were free of myocardial infarction at baseline | 1967–1978 |
| (2) | Low education, aged 25–64 y | Chicago Peoples Gas Company and Western Electric Company studies | 2 980 White men aged 40–59 y who were free of clinical coronary heart disease at baseline | 1957–1980 |
| Lochner et al.54 | Income inequality | National Health Interview Survey and Current Population Survey | 546 888 non-Hispanic White and Black men and women aged 18–74 y; number of areas: 48 states | 1987–1995 |
| Mare55 | Low education, aged 25–64 y | National Longitudinal Survey of Labor Market Experiences of Mature Men | 5 020 men aged 44–61 y | 1966–1983 |
| McDonough et al.56 | Low education, aged 25–64 y; poverty, aged 25–64 y | PSID | For this analysis, PSID sample was converted into 14 10-y panels, with total of 46 197 observations; each panel was restricted to individuals aged ≥ 45 y in middle of 10-y period | 1968–1989 |
| McLaughlin and Stokes57 | Area-level poverty; racial segregation | Compressed Mortality files and census data | Total population of the contiguous US; number of areas: 3 067 counties | 1988–1992 |
| Muennig et al.31 | Poverty, aged ≥ 65 y | National Health Interview Survey | Men and women aged 65–74 y | 1990–1995 |
| Muntaner et al.58 | Poverty, aged 25–64 y | National Health Interview Survey | 377 129 men and women aged 25–64 y who were in civilian labor force at baseline and provided sufficient information about their occupation or industry to be classified by economic sector | 1986–1997 |
| Qureshi et al.59 | Low education, aged 25–64 y | NHANES I, NHEFS, NHANES II Mortality Follow-up Study | 14 407 NHANES I participants aged 25–74 y, and 9 252 NHANES II participants aged 30–74 y in 1976–1980 | 1971–1992 |
| Rehkopf et al.60 | Low education, aged 25–64 and ≥ 65 y; area-level poverty | Vital statistics and Census data | Total population of MA census tracts; number of areas not reported | 1999–2001 |
| Reidpath61 | Area-level poverty; racial segregation | Compressed Mortality files and census data | Total population of the United States; number of areas: 50 states | 1989–1991 |
| Robbins and Webb62 | Area-level poverty | Vital statistics and Census data | Total population of Philadelphia, PA, census tracts; number of areas not reported | 1999–2001 |
| Rogot et al.63 | Low education, aged ≥ 65 y | National Longitudinal Mortality Study | 115 237 White and Black men and women aged ≥ 65 y | 1979–1985 |
| Rutledge et al.64 | Low education, aged ≥ 65 y; low social support, aged ≥ 65 y | Study of Osteoporotic Fractures | 7 524 White community-dwelling women aged ≥ 65 y who had no history of bilateral hip replacement and who completed social network scale at follow-up | 1988–1996 |
| Schoenbach et al.65 | Low social support, aged 25–64 and ≥ 65 y | Evans County Cardiovascular Epidemiologic Study | 2 059 residents of Evans County, GA, with complete data on social networks and mortality | 1967–1980 |
| Schulz et al.66 | Low education, aged ≥ 65 y | Cardiovascular Health Study | 5 201 men and women aged ≥ 65 y living in Forsyth County, NC; Washington County, MD; Sacramento County, CA; and Allegheny County, PA | 1989–1995 |
| Smith et al.67,68 | Poverty, aged 25–64 y | Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial screening | 320 909 White and Black men aged 35–57 y | 1973–1990 |
| Snowdon et al.69 | Low education, aged 25–64 and ≥ 65 y | Nun Study | 306 Roman Catholic nuns aged ≥ 50 y from Mankato, MN, province of School Sisters of Notre Dame | 1936–1988 |
| Steenland et al.70 | ||||
| (1) | Low education, aged 25–64 y | CPS-I | 1 051 038 men and women aged ≥ 30 y from 25 states in the United States | 1959–1972 |
| (2) | Low education, aged 25–64 y | CPS-II | 1 184 657 men and women aged ≥ 30 y nationwide | 1982–1996 |
| Thomas et al.71 | Area-level poverty | Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial screening | 293 138 men aged 35–57 y with complete baseline health and median household income data; number of areas: 14 031 census tracts | 1973–1999 |
| Turra and Goldman72 | Low education, aged 25–64 y | National Health Interview Survey | 331 079 Hispanic and non-Hispanic native-born White men and women aged ≥ 25 y with complete information for all covariates of interest | 1989–1997 |
| Waitzman and Smith26 | Area-level povertyd | NHANES I, NHEFS | 10 161 White and Black men and women aged 25–74 y with complete information on covariates and vital status; number of areas not applicabled | 1971–1987 |
| Yabroff and Gordis73 | ||||
| (1) | Area-level poverty | National Multiple Cause of Death File and census data | White and Black women aged ≥ 55 y in United States; number of areas: 413 counties for estimate | 1990–1991 |
| (2) | Area-level poverty | NHIS | 111 776 White and Black women aged ≥ 55 y who participated in NHIS in 1987–1993; number of areas: 284 counties or clusters of counties for estimate | 1987–1995 |
| Young and Lyson74 | Area-level poverty | Bureau of Health Professions Area Resource File and Census data | Total population of contiguous United States; number of areas: 3 023 counties | 1989–1991 |
Note. CPS = Cancer Prevention Study; EPESE = Established Populations for Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly; NCHS = National Center for Health Statistics; NHANES I = National Health and Examination Survey I; NHEFS = NHANES I Epidemiological Follow-Up Survey; NHIS = National Health Interview Survey; PSID = Panel Study of Income Dynamics.
a
Social factors for which each study contributed estimates in the meta-analysis.
b
Sample from which the estimate included in the meta-analysis was obtained; age refers to age of the sample at baseline. For studies providing estimates for area-level social factors (area-level poverty, income inequality, racial segregation), the number of areas included is also provided when possible.
c
The range of years for each study reflects the earliest year of baseline data collection (at which the social factor was measured) through the last year of mortality follow-up.
d
Area-level poverty defined as residence in a federally designated poverty area.