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Components of the area function model defined by Eqns. 1–2. (a) Equivalent diameter function representing the mean (or neutral) shape of the vocal tract, Ω(x), (b) two shaping modes φ1(x) and φ2(x), and (c) example constriction perturbation function with constriction location lc = 14.3 cm from the glottis, and constriction extent rc = 3 cm.
