TABLE 1.
Descriptive characteristics of the Framingham Osteoporosis Study participants at the 20th exam in 1988–1989
| Descriptive variables1 | Men | Women |
| Age (y) | 75.2 ± 5.02 | 75.5 ± 5.0 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 26.2 ± 3.93 | 24.9 ± 4.7 |
| Physical activity score | 33.7 ± 6.0 | 33.1 ± 4.9 |
| Education group (%) | ||
| No high school diploma | 32.9 | 29.1 |
| High school diploma | 33.4 | 38.2 |
| Higher education | 33.7 | 32.7 |
| Ever smoked (%) | 74.23 | 55.7 |
| Alcohol use (%) | ||
| None | 35.34 | 48.5 |
| Moderate | 44.44 | 34.4 |
| High | 20.34 | 17.1 |
| Multivitamin supplement use (%) | 21.55 | 27.6 |
| Current estrogen use (%)6 | ||
| Current user | — | 4.8 |
| Former user | — | 1.4 |
| Nonuser | — | 93.8 |
| Season of BMD measurement (%)6 | ||
| Winter | 27.1 | 28.4 |
| Spring | 28.0 | 28.1 |
| Summer | 24.6 | 21.3 |
| Fall | 20.3 | 22.2 |
| Intake6 | ||
| Total energy (MJ/d) | 7.8 ± 2.63 | 7.0 ± 2.3 |
| Total calcium (mg/d)7 | 763 ± 3893 | 831 ± 452 |
| Total vitamin D (IU/d)7 | 322 ± 2758 | 329 ± 254 |
| Total carotenoids (μg/d)910 | 15,186 ± 89023 | 16,502 ± 10,094 |
| α-Carotene (μg/d)9 | 685 ± 6213 | 913 ± 807 |
| Total β-carotene (μg/d)79 | 3892 ± 26513 | 4777 ± 3245 |
| β-Cryptoxanthin (μg/d)9 | 66.8 ± 668 | 76.4 ± 71 |
| Lycopene (μg/d)9 | 7740 ± 6128 | 7508 ± 6287 |
| Lutein+zeaxanthin (μg/d)9 | 2802 ± 23423 | 3228 ± 2773 |
| Fruit and vegetables (servings/d) | 5.0 ± 2.53 | 5.7 ± 2.8 |
| Bone mineral density at exam 20 (g/cm2)11 | ||
| Femoral neck | 0.878 ± 0.1463 | 0.720 ± 0.114 |
| Trochanter | 0.847 ± 0.1503 | 0.624 ± 0.127 |
| Radial shaft | 0.719 ± 0.0853 | 0.512 ± 0.091 |
| Lumbar spine | 1.33 ± 0.2273 | 1.07 ± 0.189 |
| Bone mineral density at exam 22 (g/cm2)12 | ||
| Femoral neck | 0.874 ± 0.1413 | 0.709 ± 0.113 |
| Trochanter | 0.849 ± 0.1473 | 0.612 ± 0.125 |
| Radial shaft | 0.698 ± 0.0793 | 0.492 ± 0.089 |
| Lumbar spine | 1.32 ± 0.2243 | 1.03 ± 0.219 |
Unless indicated otherwise, sample sizes varied from 368 to 374 for men and from 597 to 602 for women.
Mean ± SD (all such values).
Comparison with women (t tests were conducted): 3P < 0.0001, 4P < 0.001, 5P < 0.1, 8P < 0.01.
Sample sizes were 374 for men and 602 for women.
Total nutrient intake = dietary intake + intake from supplements.
Nutrient intake variables are presented in original scale; square root transformations were applied to the carotenoids before creating residuals. t Tests were conducted using energy-adjusted residuals.
Total carotenoid intake = sum of the intake of 5 individual carotenoids examined in this study.
Sample sizes ranged from 259 to 340 for men and 429 to 545 for women.
Sample sizes varied from 188 to 216 for men and from 348 to 395 for women.