Table 1.
Small nonpeptide therapeutics for SEB-induced shock.
| Pharmacologic agent | Target | Biological effects against SEB |
|---|---|---|
| Rapamycin FDA-approved for prevention of renal graft rejection | Immunophilin FK506BP12 | Blocked SEB-induced MCP-1 and IL-6 in vitro and in vivo [125]. |
| Protected mice from lethality even when administered 24 h after SEB. | ||
| Dexamethasone FDA-approved for treating inflammatory diseases | NF-κB | Inhibited SEB-induced proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines in PBMC [72] and adhesion molecules (ICAM, ELAM, VCAM) on endothelial cells [121]. |
| Reduced serum levels of cytokines, attenuated hypothermia due to SEB, improved survival of mice [72,97]. | ||
| Pentoxifylline FDA-approved for treating peripheral arterial disease | Phosphodiesterase | Attenuated SEB-induced proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines in PBMC [17,97]. |
| Blocked cytokine release in vivo and prevented SEB-induced lethal shock in SEB + LPS murine models [97]. | ||
| Pirfenidone | Inhibition of TGFβ (exact mechanism unknown) | Inhibited SEB-stimulated cytokines in vitro and in vivo [96]. |
| Improved survival of mice [96]. | ||
| Niacinamide | Nitric oxide synthase | Inhibited serum IL-2 and IFNγ [94]. |
| Prevented death of mice from SEB-mediated shock [94]. | ||
| D609 | Phospholipase C | Blocked SEB-stimulated cytokines, chemokines and proliferation in human PBMC [48]. |
| Improved survival of mice [103]. |