Table 2.
Historical NHP PID models and the pathological features found with each subsequent trial.
| Researcher, Year | Animal | Chlamydial inoculum | Site of inoculation | Pathologic features |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Thygeson and Mengert 1936 [11] | Baboon | Material from infant with inclusion blennorrhea | cervix | Cervicitis, purulent cervical discharge |
| Alexander et al., 1967 [31] | Taiwan monkey | TRIC | cervix | Mild erythema of the lower genital tract |
| Ripa et al., 1979 [32] | Grivet | Ct, 2 × 105 IFU/mL | fallopian tube | Histological changes in the upper genital tract, swollen reddened tubes, abundant lymphocytes in the tubal epithelium, clusters of desquamated cells, adhesions between mucosal folds |
| Johnson et al., 1980 [20] | Marmoset | Ct, 5 × 105 IFU/mL | vagina | Acute inflammatory reaction of the lower genital tract, PMNs, intracytoplasmic chlamydial inclusions |
| Moller et al., 1980 [33] | Grivet | Ct, 2 × 105 IFU/mL | cervix | Reddened and swollen tubes, exudate from ostia, histological changes in the upper genital tract, lumen of tube diminished and tubal epithelium atrophic and flattened, demonstrated vertical spread of organism |
| Johnson et al., 1981 [34] | Marmoset | Ct, 4.2–8.8 × 105 IFU/mL | vagina | Demonstrated that reinfection with either homologous or heterologous strain could result in infection however the shorter duration between inoculations resulted in marked immunity and decreased duration of infection |
| Johnson et al., 1985 [35] | Marmoset | Ct, 5 × 105 IFU/mL | vagina | Cervical erythema with occasional edema, cloudy, or purulent mucus, PMNs identified, endometritis, and salpingitis |
| Patton et al., 1983, 1984 [36, 37] | Pigtailed macaque | Ct, 6 × 106 IFU/mL | fallopian tube | Acute salpingitis with marked edema and swelling, flocculent exudate, PMNs, isolation of Ct from cervix and tubes |
| Patton et al., 1987 [38] | Cynomolgus rhesus |
Ct, 7 × 106 IFU/mL | Subcutaneous pocket model with fallopian tube implants | Marked erythema, edema, and swelling, widespread inflammation with lymphocytic cells and PMNs, and plasma cells had infiltrated the stroma, infection duration shorter than that seen in intact model with direct tubal inoculation |
| Patton et al., 1987 [14] | Pigtailed macaque | Ct, 2–4 × 108 IFU/mL | fallopian tube | Chronic salpingitis with extensive tubal scarring, distal tubal obstruction, and peritubal adhesions |
| Patton et al., 1990 [39] | Pigtailed macaque | Ct, 1 × 106 IFU/mL | cervix | Acute and chronic salpingitis, peritubal adhesions |
| Wolner-Hanssen et al., 1991 [40] | Pigtailed macaque | Ct, 1 × 106 IFU/mL | cervix | Demonstrated that repeated cervical inoculation resulted protective immunity though there was no relationship between the antibody titer and reinfection |
| Patton et al., 1994 [41] | Pigtailed macaque | Ct, 5 × 103 IFU/mL | Subcutaneous pocket model with fallopian tube implants | Demonstrated a delayed hypersensitivity in response to inoculation with Ct in both previously infected pockets and noninfected pockets |
| Van Voorhis et al., 1997 [42] | Pigtailed macaque | Ct, 1 × 105 IFU/mL | Subcutaneous pocket model with fallopian tube implants, cervix and fallopian tubes | Suggests that a Th1-like cytokine response is seen with repeated infection with Ct |
| Patton et al., 2005 [43] | Pigtailed macaque | Ct, 1 × 105 IFU/mL | cervix | Demonstrated the azithromycin treatment in Ct infection ameliorated the immune response to Ct infection |
| Patton et al., 2008, 2009 [44, 45] | Pigtailed macaque | Ct, 5 × 105 IFU/mL | vaginal fornix, rectum | Demonstrated the ability of NHP PID model for evaluating the safety and efficacy of topical microbicides |
| Bell et al., 2010 [21] | Olive baboon | Ct, 1 × 107 IFU/mL | cervix | Acute and chronic salpingitis, peritubal adhesions |
Ct: Chlamydia trachomatis.