Table 2.
Lists of maximum possible moment arms (in millimetres) of elbow joint flexor muscles along the brachium (Fl1) and antebrachium (Fl2), and of the elbow joint extensors (Ex), the extensor/flexor moment arm ratio (MAR), and types of locomotor abilities (LA) in the mammals studied. The Reference column indicates where information on locomotor abilities (LA column) was checked
| Taxonomy | Moment arms (mm) | MAR | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Order/family | Taxa | Specimen | Fl1 | Fl2 | Ex | Ex/Fl | LA | References |
| Monotremata | ||||||||
| Tachyglossidae | Tachyglossus aculeatus | NSM M 28691 | 11.3 | 25.4 | 24.2 | 0.953 | D | Nowak (1999) |
| Diprotodontia | ||||||||
| Phalangeridae | Trichosurus vulpecuis | NSM M 34964 | 18.9 | 14.7 | 14.4 | 0.761 | B | Weisbecker & Warton (2006) |
| Phascolarctidae | Phascolarctos cinereus | NSM M 821 | 35.2 | 30.2 | 23.3 | 0.662 | B | Weisbecker & Warton (2006) |
| Macropodidae | Macropus giganteus | NSM M 35838 | 56.9 | 42.4 | 37.3 | 0.655 | A | Weisbecker & Warton (2006) |
| M. giganteus | UMUT unnumbered* | 48.6 | 49.6 | 38.4 | 0.774 | A | Weisbecker & Warton (2006) | |
| M. giganteus | UMUT 0140 | 29.2 | 21.9 | 20.8 | 0.714 | A | Weisbecker & Warton (2006) | |
| M. agilis | UMUT 0047 | 40.3 | 27.6 | 26.1 | 0.648 | A | Weisbecker & Warton (2006) | |
| Afrosoricida | ||||||||
| Tenrecidae | Tenrec ecaudatus | UMZC E.5431.H | 11.9 | 12.4 | 12.3 | 0.988 | A | Salton & Sargis (2009) |
| Setifer setosus | UMZC E.5450.B | 7.4 | 6.9 | 6.2 | 0.844 | A | Salton & Sargis (2009) | |
| Hemicentetes nigriceps | UMZC E.5445.B | 5.7 | 6.9 | 7.5 | 1.088 | A | Salton & Sargis (2009) | |
| Chrysochloridae | Amblysomus hottentotus | UMZC 2010.15.A | 3.7 | 2.3 | 7.5 | 2.011 | D | Nowak (1999) |
| Tublidentata | ||||||||
| Orycteropodidae | Orycteropus afer | NSM M 34334 | 69.3 | 27.6 | 56.3 | 0.813 | A | Nowak (1999) |
| O. afer | UMZC E.1326 | 54.3 | 33.0 | 59.4 | 1.094 | A | Nowak (1999) | |
| Hyracoidea | ||||||||
| Procaviidae | Procavia capensis | NSM M 34896 | 11.2 | 15.1 | 16.3 | 1.079 | B | Nowak (1999) |
| P. sp. | UMZC E.4980.K | 11.4 | 17.2 | 15.1 | 0.878 | B | Nowak (1999) | |
| Dendrohyrax arboreus | UMZC H.5281 | 7.7 | 13.0 | 12.1 | 0.931 | B | Nowak (1999) | |
| Proboscidea | ||||||||
| Elephantidae | Elephas maximus | NSM M 33109 | 314.0 | 109.5 | 262.8 | 0.837 | A | Nowak (1999) |
| E. maximus | UMUT 0701 | 221.7 | 207.3 | 168.1 | 0.758 | A | Nowak (1999) | |
| E. maximus | UMZC H.4611 | 249.8 | 293.4 | 208.4 | 0.710 | A | Nowak (1999) | |
| Cingulata | ||||||||
| Dasypodidae | Dasypus novemcinctus | IC | 20.1 | 8.6 | 27.7 | 1.379 | A | Nowak (1999) |
| Chaetopractus villosus | UMZC E.1062 | 27.5 | 11.1 | 19.2 | 0.698 | A | Nowak (1999) | |
| Tolypeutes muriei | UMZC E. 1182 | 11.2 | 8.5 | 18.8 | 1.674 | A | Nowak (1999) | |
| Chlamydophorus truncates | UMZC E.1201 | 8.9 | 2.8 | 10.5 | 1.186 | A | Nowak (1999) | |
| Pilosa | ||||||||
| Bradypodidae | Bradypus tridactylus | UMZC E.21 | 44.9 | 31.8 | 11.0 | 0.245 | F | Mendel (1985) |
| B. tridactylus | UMZC E.23 | 45.8 | 32.9 | 11.2 | 0.245 | F | Mendel (1985) | |
| Megalonychidae | Choloepus hoffmanni | NSM M 10137 | 66.5 | 31.3 | 15.9 | 0.239 | F | Mendel (1981) |
| C. hoffmanni | UMUT unnumbered* | 23.6 | 12.5 | 7.9 | 0.249 | F | Mendel (1981) | |
| C. hoffmanni | UMUT unnumbered* | 65.2 | 36.7 | 16.3 | 0.335 | F | Mendel (1981) | |
| C. didactylus | NSM PO 134 | 45.7 | 55.8 | 15.5 | 0.278 | F | Mendel (1981) | |
| C. didactylus | IC | 60.7 | 30.9 | 14.9 | 0.245 | F | Mendel (1981) | |
| Cyclopedidae | Cyclopes didactylus | UMZC E.621 | 15.1 | 9.0 | 7.7 | 0.510 | C | Nowak (1999) |
| Myrmecophagidae | Myrmecophaga tridactylus | NSM M 34333 | 79.7 | 31.7 | 52.3 | 0.657 | B | Young et al. (2003) |
| Tamandua tetradactyla | NSM M unnumbered* | 57.8 | 19.2 | 29.8 | 0.515 | C | S.-I. Fujiwara, personal observation | |
| T. tetradactyla | UMZC E.581 | 49.1 | 16.5 | 25.1 | 0.515 | C | S.-I. Fujiwara, personal observation | |
| T. sp. | IC | 47.9 | 13.7 | 24.0 | 0.501 | C | S.-I. Fujiwara, personal observation | |
| Dermoptera | ||||||||
| Cynocephalidae | Cynocephalus variegatus | ZRC 4.8187* | 42.4 | 21.4 | 6.8 | 0.161 | F | Grassé (1955) and Lim (2007) |
| C. variegatus | ZRC 4.9464* | 19.4 | 10.6 | 3.7 | 0.191 | F | Grassé (1955) and Lim (2007) | |
| C. variegatus | ZRC 4.8119* | 44.9 | 21.5 | 6.9 | 0.154 | F | Grassé (1955) and Lim (2007) | |
| C. variegatus | ZRC 4.8112* | 31.4 | 15.4 | 6.1 | 0.194 | F | Grassé (1955) and Lim (2007) | |
| Primates | ||||||||
| Lemuridae | Varecia sp. | NSM M 33114 | 39.7 | 19.6 | 15.9 | 0.401 | B | Nowak (1999) |
| Loridae | Nycticebus coucang | NSM M 35960* | 11.2 | 5.4 | 3.8 | 0.336 | C | Jouffroy & Petter (1990) |
| N. coucang | NSM M 36100* | 31.7 | 10.8 | 6.6 | 0.207 | C | Jouffroy & Petter (1990) | |
| N. coucang | KPM 3674* | 27.6 | 12.8 | 6.7 | 0.243 | C | Jouffroy & Petter (1990) | |
| Cercopithecidae | Macaca fuscata | KPM 4191* | 50.6 | 33.3 | 24.1 | 0.477 | B | Nowak (1999) |
| Pongidae | Pongo pygmaeus | NSM M 31996 | 120.6 | 61.8 | 27.4 | 0.227 | C | Thorpe & Crompton (2006) |
| P. pygmaeus | NSM M 4226 | 110.9 | 58.2 | 24.4 | 0.220 | C | Thorpe & Crompton (2006) | |
| Hominidae | Pan troglodytes | NSM M 33042 | 91.8 | 61.8 | 33.0 | 0.360 | B | Nowak (1999) |
| P. troglodytes | NSM M 32559 | 88.8 | 58.6 | 31.8 | 0.358 | B | Nowak (1999) | |
| Lagomorpha | ||||||||
| Leporidae | Oryctolagus cuniculus | NSM M 35751 | 9.9 | 10.8 | 10.7 | 0.991 | A | Nowak (1999) |
| Lepus brachyurus | NSM unnumbered | 9.9 | 9.3 | 12.6 | 1.279 | A | Nowak (1999) | |
| Rodentia | ||||||||
| Sciuridae | Petaurista leucogenys | NSM PO 94 | 23.5 | 13.9 | 8.2 | 0.348 | C | S.-I. Fujiwara, personal observation |
| P. leucogenys | KPM unnumbered* | 16.5 | 12.3 | 5.8 | 0.350 | C | S.-I. Fujiwara, personal observation | |
| Gliridae | Glirulus japonicas | NSM unnumbered* | 3.7 | 3.8 | 2.6 | 0.680 | C | Minato 2009 pers. comm. |
| Graphiurus murinus | UMUT unnumbered* | 3.8 | 3.4 | 2.5 | 0.647 | C | S.-I. Fujiwara, personal observation | |
| Caviidae | Cavia porcellus | NSM M 35862 | 8.3 | 7.4 | 8.8 | 1.060 | A | Weisbecker & Schmid (2007) |
| Dolichotis patagonum | NSM M 35831 | 23.1 | 22.1 | 26.7 | 1.154 | A | Weisbecker & Schmid (2007) | |
| Hystricidae | Erethizon dorsatum | NSM M 34319 | 26.6 | 21.1 | 13.7 | 0.514 | B | Weisbecker & Schmid (2007) |
| Soricomorpha | ||||||||
| Talpidae | Mogera kobeae | NSM PO 123 | 5.3 | 3.6 | 9.5 | 1.792 | D | Nowak (1999) |
| Cetartiodactyla | ||||||||
| Suidae | Sus scrofa | KPM 3681* | 36.5 | 22.6 | 53.9 | 1.477 | A | Nowak (1999) |
| S. scrofa domesticus | UMUT unnumbered* | 39.0 | 40.2 | 53.8 | 1.339 | A | Nowak (1999) | |
| Tayassuidae | Tayassu tajacu | UMUT 0279 | 28.4 | 21.1 | 46.8 | 1.646 | A | Nowak (1999) |
| Giraffidae | Giraffa camelopardalis | KPM 3928* | 81.0 | 71.6 | 64.8 | 0.800 | A | Nowak (1999) |
| G. camelopardalis | UMUT unnumbered | 65.5 | 119.0 | 147.3 | 1.238 | A | Nowak (1999) | |
| Cervidae | Rangifer tarandus | UMUT 0036 | 51.7 | 46.3 | 65.8 | 1.273 | A | Nowak (1999) |
| Bovidae | Bos gaurus | KPM 3937* | 113.0 | 65.8 | 132.2 | 1.170 | A | Nowak (1999) |
| Bubalus bubalis | UMUT unnumbered | 89.7 | 108.1 | 131.9 | 1.215 | A | Nowak (1999) | |
| Carnivora | ||||||||
| Mustelidae | Gulo gulo | NSM M 35843 | 42.8 | 30.4 | 27.3 | 0.637 | B | Van Vankenburgh (1987) |
| Lutra lutra | NSM M 33858 | 20.2 | 14.4 | 16.5 | 0.817 | B | Leblanc (2003) | |
| Enhydra lutris | UMUT unnumbered* | 39.1 | 25.9 | 21.0 | 0.538 | A | Iwaniuk (2000) | |
| Ailuridae | Ailurus fulgens | NSM M 34320 | 29.9 | 19.8 | 16.9 | 0.565 | B | Iwaniuk (2000) |
| Ursidae | Ailuropoda melanoleuca | NSM M 32901 | 111.1 | 54.2 | 56.2 | 0.506 | B | Iwaniuk (2000) |
| Tremarctos ornatus | NSM M 22995 | 87.5 | 48.8 | 56.3 | 0.643 | B | Van Vankenburgh (1987) | |
| Melursus ursinus | NSM M 25234 | 101.1 | 49.5 | 60.1 | 0.595 | B | Van Vankenburgh (1987) | |
| Ursus maritimus | NSM M 31634 | 112.0 | 61.8 | 70.1 | 0.626 | A | Iwaniuk (2000) | |
| U. maritimus | UMUT unnumbered* | 149.0 | 102.0 | 99.1 | 0.665 | A | Iwaniuk (2000) | |
| Canidae | Nyctereutes procyonoides | NSM M 35491 | 20.0 | 18.9 | 19.0 | 0.944 | B | Kauhala & Saeki (2004) |
| Chrysocyon brachyrus | NSM M 16003 | 48.0 | 40.4 | 41.1 | 0.856 | A | Iwaniuk (2000) | |
| C. brachyrus | NSM M 36655* | 55.4 | 38.5 | 43.3 | 0.781 | A | Iwaniuk (2000) | |
| Canis familiaris | UMUT unnumbered* | 56.1 | 41.0 | 53.3 | 0.950 | A | Van Vankenburgh (1987) | |
| Herpestidae | Mungos mungo | NSM M 35866 | 21.8 | 11.4 | 12.3 | 0.566 | A | Gittleman (1986) |
| Helogale parvula | NSM M 35753 | 12.2 | 6.1 | 6.7 | 0.549 | B | Iwaniuk (2000) | |
| Felidae | Felis catus | NSM M 35590 | 23.5 | 17.9 | 17.5 | 0.744 | B | Nowak (1999) |
| Pronailurus bengaliensis | NSM M 14329 | 12.0 | 12.9 | 12.2 | 0.946 | B | Iwaniuk (2000) | |
| Leptailurus serval | NSM M 27664 | 46.7 | 25.7 | 26.8 | 0.574 | B | Nowak (1999) | |
| Caracara caracal | NSM M 2609 | 30.8 | 21.0 | 26.3 | 0.855 | B | Van Vankenburgh (1987) | |
| Acinonyx jubatus | NSM M 31465 | 60.7 | 29.7 | 47.4 | 0.780 | B | Van Vankenburgh (1987) | |
| A. jubatus | NSM M 31466 | 49.2 | 29.6 | 45.2 | 0.918 | B | Van Vankenburgh (1987) | |
| A. jubatus | NSM M 36698 * | 56.9 | 67.8 | 47.1 | 0.694 | B | Van Vankenburgh (1987) | |
| Neofelis nebulosa | NSM M 31826 | 43.7 | 30.5 | 30.9 | 0.706 | B | Van Vankenburgh (1987) | |
| Uncia uncia | NSM M 33876 | 54.2 | 33.9 | 44.2 | 0.816 | B | Iwaniuk (2000) | |
| Panthera pardalis | KPM 3653* | 99.3 | 48.4 | 54.2 | 0.528 | B | Van Vankenburgh (1987) | |
| P. tigris | NSM M 33189 | 87.6 | 62.7 | 75.3 | 0.859 | B | Van Vankenburgh (1987) | |
| P. leo | NSM M 33055 | 83.7 | 59.9 | 66.7 | 0.797 | B | Van Vankenburgh (1987) | |
| Perissodactyla | ||||||||
| Equidae | Equus caballus | NSM PO 131 | 72.0 | 105.0 | 109.5 | 1.043 | A | Nowak (1999) |
| E. caballus | NSM M 36001* | 65.6 | 67.6 | 103.0 | 1.524 | A | Nowak (1999) | |
| E. asinus | KPM 3932* | 69.4 | 83.9 | 86.4 | 1.030 | A | Nowak (1999) | |
| Tapiridae | Tapirus indicus | KPM 3936* | 64.3 | 61.6 | 88.5 | 1.376 | A | Nowak (1999) |
| Chiroptera | ||||||||
| Pteropodidae | Pteropus pselaphon | NSM M 35961* | 15.3 | 10.2 | 5.8 | 0.376 | F | S.-I. Fujiwara, personal observation |
| P. sp. | UMUT unnumbered* | 16.6 | 4.1 | 7.7 | 0.462 | F | S.-I. Fujiwara, personal observation | |
| Rousettus aegyptiacus | NSM M 34803 | 9.8 | 8.0 | 3.4 | 0.347 | F | S.-I. Fujiwara, personal observation | |
Institution abbreviations: IC, personal collection of N. Inuzuka, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; KPM, Kanagawa Prefectural Museum, Odawara, Japan; NSM, National Science Museum, Tokyo, Japan; UMUT, The University Museum, the University of Tokyo, Japan; UMZC, University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge, UK; ZRC, Zoological Collection, Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, Singapore.
*
Measurements taken from carcasses. MAR is calculated as (Ex/Fl1) or (Ex/Fl2), whichever is smaller.