Table 3.
GM cotinine concentrations (GM cot (ng/ml)) and univariate analyses by different socio-demographic characteristics in Malaysian schoolchildren
| Socio-demographic and household characteristics | Urban (n)I | Rural (n)II | Total (n)III | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| GM cot | p-value | GM cot | p-value | GM cot | p-value | |
| Geometric mean | 0.54 (688)* | 0.36 (376)* | t = 4.069 | p < 0.0001 | ||
| GenderT | ||||||
| Boy | 0.58 (284) | t = 1.144 | 0.35 (164) | t = -0.454 | 0.48 (448) | t = 0.559 |
| Girl | 0.51 (396) | p = 0.253 | 0.37 (209) | p = 0.650 | 0.46 (605) | p = 0.576 |
| Education of father++a | ||||||
| Middle school | 0.81 (29) | F = 3.593 | 0.36 (26) | F = 2.909 | 0.57 (159) | F = 3.328 |
| High school | 0.59 (399)* | p = 0.013 | 0.35 (245) | p = 0.035 | 0.49 (590) | p = 0.019 |
| Diploma/Technical cert. | 0.54 (81) | 0.60 (45)* | 0.58 (117) | |||
| College/University | 0.38 (129)* | 0.25 (44)* | 0.35 (159)* | |||
| Occupation of father++b | ||||||
| Manual non-skilled | 0.46 (180) | F = 10.926 | 0.40 (156) | F = 1.948 | 0.45 (280) | F = 9.445 |
| Skilled worker | 0.45 (101) | p < 0.0001 | 0.45 (64) | p = 0.122 | 0.44 (149) | p < 0.0001 |
| Armed forces | 0.91 (179)* | 0.25 (30) | 0.77 (198)* | |||
| Managerial/Professional | 0.41 (180)* | 0.29 (79) | 0.37 (242) | |||
| Family income++ | ||||||
| Low | 0.55 (262) | F = 1.819 | 0.38 (209) | F = 0.140 | 0.46 (528) | F = 1.316 |
| Middle | 0.57 (225) | p = 0.163 | 0.35 (83) | p = 0.869 | 0.49 (327) | p = 0.269 |
| High | 0.41 (96) | 0.36 (38) | 0.39 (144) | |||
| SHS in householdT | ||||||
| Non-smoking | 0.38 (322)* | t = -6.23 | 0.22 (124)* | t = -5.323 | 0.32 (446)* | t = -7.329 |
| Smoking | 0.80 (278)* | p < 0.0001 | 0.51 (223)* | p < 0.0001 | 0.65 (501)* | p < 0.0001 |
| Child's sleeping area++c | ||||||
| Own room/share siblings | 0.89 (207) | F = 1.789 | 0.55 (162) | F = 0.543 | 0.72 (369) | F = 2.724 |
| Living room | 0.60 (52) | p = 0.169 | 0.84 (32) | p = 0.582 | 0.54 (84) | p = 0.067 |
| Share with parents/adults | 0.49 (18) | 0.79 (28) | 0.40 (46) | |||
| Use of air-conditioner++d | ||||||
| None | 0.59 (462)* | F = 4.109 | 0.38 (295) | F = 0.807 | 0.51 (702)* | F = 3.804 |
| Living room | 0.35 (42) | p = 0.007 | 0.21 (11) | p = 0.490 | 0.34 (49) | p = 0.010 |
| Child's sleeping area | 0.36 (83) | 0.28 (25) | 0.32 (101)* | |||
| The use of exhaust systemT | ||||||
| No | 0.58 (508)* | t = 2.485 | 0.38 (314) | t = 1.511 | 0.50 (756)* | t = 2.699 |
| Yes | 0.41 (146)* | p = 0.013 | 0.28 (55) | p = 0.132 | 0.36 (184)* | p = 0.007 |
| Smoking restriction in homes++e | ||||||
| Total | 0.51 (437) | F = 2.150 | 0.35 (233)* | F = 2.333 | 0.45 (667)* | F = 3.464 |
| Partial | 0.65 (139) | p = 0.117 | 0.38 (94) | p = 0.099 | 0.52 (230) | p = 0.032 |
| None | 0.75 (33) | 0.71 (19)* | 0.74 (52)* | |||
* Significant differences when p < 0.05
++ ANOVA test performed with LSD post-hoc test when F value have p < 0.05
T t-test performed
a For education of father in column I, GM between the group high school and college/university were significantly different
b For occupation of father in column I, GM between the groups armed forces and Managerial/Professional were significantly different
c For children who live in smoking home only
d For the use of air-conditioner in column I, GM for all the groups were significantly different from None
a For education of father in column II, GM between the group Diploma/Certificate were significantly different from college/university level
e For smoking restriction in homes in column II, GM between total smoking restriction and no smoking restriction group were significantly different
a For education of father in column III, GM for all groups were significantly different when compared to college/university level
b For occupation of father in column III, GM for all groups were significantly different when compared to armed forces category
c For child's sleeping area in column III , GM between own room/share with siblings and share with parents/adults were significantly different
d For the use of air-conditioner in column III , GM between none and child's sleeping area were significantly different
e For smoking restriction in homes in column II, GM between total smoking restriction and no smoking restriction were significantly different