Table 3.
Regression Results for First Grade Math Scores, Controlling for Kindergarten Scores
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Estimate | p | Estimate | p | Estimate | p | Estimate | p | Estimate | p | |
| Race/Ethnicity and Immigration | ||||||||||
| African-American | −2.04 | *** | −1.97 | *** | −1.88 | *** | −1.71 | *** | −1.75 | *** |
| 3rd-plus Latino/a | −0.46 | * | −0.44 | −0.22 | −0.23 | −0.22 | ||||
| Mexican immigrant | −0.46 | −0.46 | −0.19 | −0.22 | 0.44 | |||||
| Birth Status | ||||||||||
| Nonmarital | −0.87 | *** | −0.51 | ** | −0.30 | −0.22 | ||||
| Unknown | −0.79 | −0.54 | −.36 | 0.03 | ||||||
| Current Family Structure | ||||||||||
| Cohabiting biological parent | −1.10 | ** | −0.93 | * | −0.80 | * | ||||
| Married stepparent | −0.36 | −0.25 | −0.27 | |||||||
| Cohabiting stepparent | −0.41 | −0.28 | −0.22 | |||||||
| Single parent | −0.58 | ** | −0.34 | −0.25 | ||||||
| Other | −0.66 | −0.66 | −0.44 | |||||||
| Change in Family Structure | 0.24 | 0.32 | 0.31 | 0.33 | ||||||
| Family/Parent Characteristics | ||||||||||
| Parent education | 0.58 | *** | 0.55 | *** | 0.55 | *** | ||||
| Per capita income/1000 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | |||||||
| Maternal age at first birth | −0.01 | −0.10 | ||||||||
| Home language (non-Eng.) | −0.15 | −0.14 | ||||||||
| Reading activities | 0.24 | * | 0.24 | * | ||||||
| In-home activities | −0.16 | −0.15 | ||||||||
| Parent/child warmth | 0.14 | 0.13 | ||||||||
| Parenting stress | −0.68 | *** | −0.68 | *** | ||||||
| Preschool Experience | ||||||||||
| Relative care | −0.26 | −0.21 | ||||||||
| Non-relative care | 0.16 | 0.16 | ||||||||
| Center care | −0.24 | −0.24 | ||||||||
| Head start | −1.47 | *** | −1.48 | *** | ||||||
| Other care | −0.81 | * | −0.81 | * | ||||||
| Birth Status by Current Structure | ||||||||||
| After marital birth | ||||||||||
| Married stepparent | −0.14 | |||||||||
| Cohabiting stepparent | −0.02 | |||||||||
| Single parent | −0.53 | * | ||||||||
| After nonmarital birth | ||||||||||
| Married biological | −0.49 | |||||||||
| Cohabiting biological | −1.03 | ** | ||||||||
| Married stepparent | −0.65 | |||||||||
| Cohabiting stepparent | −0.61 | |||||||||
| Single parent | −0.27 | |||||||||
| Guardian/adopted | −0.77 | |||||||||
| Unknown birth status | −0.30 | |||||||||
| Δ-2 Res LL/df (vs. prior model) | −20/6 | ** | −47/2 | *** | −73/10 | *** | −7/4 | |||
***
p<.001
**
p<.01
*
p<.05.
Note: All models controlled for region, child age/gender, and kindergarten math score. They were also weighted, included a random intercept for school, and employed MI to deal with missing data on continuous measures. For sets of dummy variables, reference categories were married (birth status), married biological (current family structure; birth status by current structure), parental care (preschool), and White (race/ethnicity).