Table 5.
Study results for outcomes of loneliness, social isolation, structural social support and functional social support
| Study | N (n allocated to intervention, control) | Mean age (yrs) | Gender (% female) |
Intervention effect on loneliness/social isolation/structural social support/functional social support |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| RANDOMISED CONTROLLED TRIALS (n = 16): | ||||
| Constantino [66] | 150 (i1 = 50, i2 = 50, c = 50) | 57.98 overall | 100% (i1) 100% (i2) 100% (c) |
Improved socialisation across 12 months. Most notable at 6 weeks but remained better than control at all time points. |
| Fukui et al [55] | 50 (25, 25) | 53.5 overall 52.6 (i) 54.3 (c) |
Not reported | At six week and six months, reduced loneliness and increased number of confidants. Improved satisfaction with confidants and mutual aid at both time points. |
| Harris & Bodden [67] | 102 (i = 26, c1 = 26) | 76.6 overall Not reported (i) Not reported (c) |
Not reported | Increased social interaction at six weeks. |
| Kremers et al [68] | 142 (63, 79) | Overall NR 62.8 (i) 65.2 (c) |
100% | No effect on overall or emotional loneliness at six weeks and six months. Reduced social loneliness at six weeks, but effect disappeared at six months. |
| Lokk [69] | 65 (33, 32) | Overall NR 76 (new i), 78 (chronic i) 74 (new i), 71 (chronic i) |
Overall NR 52% (new i), 50% (chronic i) 42 (new i), 63 (chronic i) |
Increased social network size at six weeks, but effect disappeared by 12 weeks. Increased availability of company evident at 24 weeks. |
| Ollonqvist et al [70] | 741 (376, 365) | 78 overall 78.1 (i) 78.6 (c) |
86% overall 84.6 (i) 87.1 (c) |
No effect on loneliness or number of friends and relatives at 12 months. |
| Routasalo et al [13] | 235 (117, 118) | Overall NR 80 (i) 80 (c) |
Overall NR 74.4 (i) 72.9 (c) |
Developed more new friendships at 12 months. |
| Savelkoul & de Witte [56] | 168 overall (i = 56, c1 = 56, c2 = 56) | Overall NR 52.5 (i) 51.5 (c1) 50.5 (c2) |
Overall NR 76.8% (i) 58.9% (c1) 77.9% (c2) |
No effect on loneliness at post-intervention or six months. |
| White et al, 2002 [64] | 100 (51, 49) | Overall NR 71 (i) 72 (c) |
Overall NR 71 (i) 82 (c) |
No effect on loneliness or number of confidants at five months. |
| Brennan et al [51] | 102 (51, 51) | 64 overall | 67% overall | No effect on social isolation at 12 months. |
| Heller et al [58] | 291 (238 - not split by grp, 53) | 74 overalla | 100% overall | None of the intervention groups reported an effect on loneliness or perceived level of support from friends and family members at 20 or 30 weeks. |
| MacIntyre et al [71] | 26 (15, 11) | 79.4 overall 79.7 (i) 79.0 (c) |
68% overall 58% (i) 80% (c) |
Increased social integration at six weeks, but no effect on perceptions of intimacy, nurturance and guidance. |
| O'Loughlin et al [57] | 74 (39, 35) | 42 overall 42.6 (i) 41.2 (c) |
Overall NR 46.2 (i) 57.1 (c) |
No effect on recent social and leisure activities, or satisfaction with social relationships at either three or six months. |
| Schulz [59] | 40 (i1 = 10, i2 = 10, c1 = 10, c2 = 10) | 81.5 overall 85.0 (i1) 79.8 (i2) 83.4 (c1) 77.9 (c2) |
90% overall | At two months, increased social activity, amount of time spent in active pursuits and number of activities planned. Intervention effects were only significant when comparing both intervention groups against both control groups. |
| Slegers et al [72] | 236 (i = 62, c1 = 45, c2 = 68, c3 = 61) | Not reported | Not reported | No effect on loneliness or social network size at either four or 12 months compared with all three control groups. |
| Drentea et al [52] | 183 (94, 89)a | 71.6 overall 72.6 (i) 70.5 (c) |
61.8% overall 57.5% (i) 66.3% (c) |
Increased satisfaction with social support over a five year period. |
| QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES (n = 16): | ||||
| Arnetz & Theorell [60] | 60 (30, 30) | Overall NR 77.6 yrs (i) 78.8 yrs (c) |
Overall NR 66.7% (i) 66.7% (c) |
Increased participation in activities arranged by the bureau or occupational therapy at six months, but no effect on activities arranged by the church. |
| Baumgarten et al [61] | 95 (51, 44)a | Overall NR 56.8% ≥75 yrs (i) 54.6% ≥75 yrs (c) |
Overall NR 74.5% (i) 70.5% (c) |
No effect on number of social ties or satisfaction with social support at 16 weeks. |
| Evans & Jaureguy [73] | 84 (42, 42) | 61.7 overall | Not reported | Reduced loneliness and increased number of social activities at eight weeks. |
| Fujiwara et al [74] | 141 (67, 74) | Overall NR 68.2 (i) 68.7 (c) |
Overall NR 77.6 (i) 68.9% (c) |
At nine months, increased contact with grandchildren and children contacted via voluntary activity, and increased numbers of distant friends. Reduced support received from friends/neighbours, but increased support given to friends/neighbours. Increased number of children contacted via voluntary activity remained at 21 months. |
| Martina & Stevens [75] | 115 (60, 55) | 63.0 overall 63.2 (i) 63.1 (c) |
100% overall | Six month post-intervention, more new friendships formed and improved positive and negative affect, but no effect on loneliness. |
| Rosen & Rosen [76] | 121 (i = 68, c1 = 31, c2 = 22) | 70 overall | 81% overall | Increased number of new/old activities enjoyed, but no effect on social isolation or number of social events attended at 12-15 months. |
| Stevens & van Tilburg [77] | 64 (32, 32) | Overall NR 63.4 (i) 69.8 (c) |
100% overall | Trend towards reduced loneliness at one year (p = 0.054). |
| Toseland et al [53] | 175 (i1 = 67, i2 = 51, c = 36) | Overall NR 51.7 (i1) 50.5 (i2) 50.5 (c) |
100% overall | Increased support network size for support group participants at eight weeks, compared with individual counselling participants and controls. No effect on extent of support. |
| White et al 1999 [62] | 27 (19, 8) | Overall NR 77 (i) 80 (c) |
Overall NR 84 (i) 75 (c) |
No effect on loneliness or social support at five months. |
| Winningham & Pike [63] | 73 (i & c not reported) | 82.1 overall | Not reported | No effect on loneliness at three months, though it maintained participants perception of their social support compared to a deterioration in the control group |
| Bogat & Jason [78] | 35 (i1 = 12, i2 = 11, c = 12)a | Not reported | Not reported | At three months, both intervention groups reported increased desired network size but no effect on current network size, number of telephone calls or visits per week. |
| Fokkema & Knipscheer [79] | 29 (15, 14) | Overall NR 66 (i) 68 (c) |
Overall NR 92% (i) 50% (c) |
At three years, reduced overall loneliness but no effect on social or emotional loneliness. |
| Mulligan & Bennett [80] | 23 (i & c not reported) | 77 overall 75 (i) 80 (c) |
91% overall | Unable to assess intervention effect as only within-group analysis conducted. |
| Rook & Sorkin [81] | 180 (i = 52, c1 = 69, c2 = 59) | 70.5 overall 69.6 (i) 68.9 (c1) 73.2 (c2) |
65.6 overall 67.3 (i) 69.6 (c1) 59.3 (c2) |
No effect on loneliness or the number of people depending on participants, at one and two years compared with both control groups. Increased number of new relationships formed at one and two years, and increased number of new social ties at two years compared with both control groups. |
| Toseland & Smith [54] | 99 (59 - not split by i1 & i2, 40) | Overall NR 50.4 (i1) 50.0 (i2) 50.5 (c) |
100% overall | Neither peer nor professional counselling groups reported any effect on network size, change in support network or satisfaction with support network at eight weeks. |
| Bergman-Evans [65] | 35 (21, 13)a | Overall NR 76.1 (i) 83.1 (c) |
Overall NR 38.1% (i) 84.6% (c) |
No effect on loneliness at one year. |
a. Number in main analysis